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X`7b$`sb$`t 71. :SRAm>mNR/e & b6b(  1.3 SSƉ҉TqQeƉ҉ Nw SN;uQN*NASW[, PN*NPWh. The diachronic and synchronic perspectives will form a cross, which like a coordinate. <{`zb$`JX R9(Distinction between Schools and Branches))b(` 1. :SRAm>mNR/e `  X1.2 f[vR/e: Branches: NQR:f[, |(MO)f[, ͋Glf[, b_` f[, Slf[, INf[, (uf[(?) Distinction from within: phonetics, phonology, lexicology, morphology, syntax, semantic, pragmatics (?) @b$b$ l 9 1. :SRAm>mNR/e2 `d`NYR: _tf[, >yOf[, { f[, ^y~f[, eSf[, N{| f[ 틙e^f[I{0 Distinction from without: psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, computation linguistics, neurolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, cultural linguistics, corpus linguistics, etc. $`` W>1. :SRAm>mNR/e `'YR{|: tf[, ^(uf[ Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.EEb6611. :SRAm>mNR/e `  D1.3 f[Am>m: O~l (600BC 18N~)traditional grammar; SSf[(19N~100t^) historical linguistics; sNf[_z("}}\, 20N~R) the beginning of modern linguistics; 4``` - P71. :SRAm>mNR/e ` 'k2mR;NIN(20N~20-50)European functionalism &Ofef[>m(1940 50)The London School; |~Rl(1960 s(W) Halliday s Systemic-functional grammar*`b$b);"1. :SRAm>mNR/e ` V~g;NINf[(1930 50) American structuralism Vlbcubl(1957 s) Chomsky s Generative Grammar wf[ today Cognitive linguisticsb$l $#H2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction %%b(& 2.1 b__>m l͑Rgvb__, ~g, bRTbRvR^, [ۏLb__cQTcQvb__S, Qv_t'`. The formal school: emphasize the formal, structural aspects of L, and distribution of elements; formalize the description of L; a psychological perspective.`p <#F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(2.2 R>m l͑RgvR, Rg N TB\!k NvbRvINR, :NRQ[b__, Qv>yO'`. The functional school: emphasize the functional nature of L; analyze the semantic function of elements on all levels; function determines form; a sociolinguistic perspective. 0``f F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(( "2.3 $N>mv:S+R b__;NIN:N/f_tsa;R;NIN/f>yOsa. The formal camp say language is a psychological fact; the functional camp say language is a social fact. J  b$b(8 k =%F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(2. b__;NINnfMsa/fN{|utW O;R;NIN/feg>yO[vnfMЏ(u. The formal camp say linguistic universals are men s biological inheritance; the functional camp say language similarities come from the common use of language. "`D >$F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(3.b__;NIN ?Qz`N_/fN{|vQ(WR;R;NINُ/f?QzNEvTRvSU\. The formal camp say that children are born with the ability to acquire language; the functional camp say that language learning comes from children s needs and development. 0``6?&F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(n4.b__;NINbS_brz|~xvzR;NINb>e(W>yOR-Nxvz0 The formalists regard language as an independent system; the formalists study language in the social context by referring to its social function."&`$12.[‰:SRAm>m `$  2.4 mb__l nN;TTf[ TNZTsQ|:NSTvR>mRl nNOTNyf[ 0b__>mb wbN|Rv~g ُN~gKNSN~bQV[vsQ|@bNMb glbcN NN:_vnfM'` blNNyKN:NSl wb/fvW@x@bNl/fNav VdklV~@wSP[ U\_0b0 @'2.[‰:SRAm>m ` Halliday: The basic opposition is not that between  structural and  generative grammars . The more fundamental opposition is between those that are primarily symtagmatic in orientation (by and large the formal grammars, with their roots in logic and philosophy)b S:2.[‰:SRAm>m ` and those that are primarily paradigmatic (by and large the functional ones, with their roots in rhetoric and ethnography). The former interpret a language a list of structures, among which, regular relationships may be established (b$b$A(2.[‰:SRAm>m ` (hence the introduction of transformation); they tend to emphasize universal features of language, to take grammar (which they call syntax) as the foundation of language (hence the grammar is arbitrary), and so to be organized around the sentence.b$C+2.[‰:SRAm>m ` R>mb wb/fN*NsQ|Q vQW,gsQ|PRN~gRN[sNN:_KNv N Tp bIN wZPvW@x@bNl/f6qv Vdkl/fV~@we,gb{ U\_v0$N*N5%KN gYNS _N gNvPt FON`no NN/f_ N Tv $N'Y5%_U\[݋_N_V0 0``" B)2.[‰:SRAm>m ` 2The functionalists interpret language as a network of relations, with structures coming in as the realization of these relationships; they tend to emphasize variables among languages, to take semantics as the foundation (hence the grammar is natural), and so to be organized around the text, or discourse. 33b$D*2.[‰:SRAm>m ` There are many cross-currents, with insights borrowed from one to the other; but they are ideologically fairly difficult and it is often difficulty to maintain a dialogue. 0b$`32.[‰:SRAm>m `  m `Halliday: In general the functional approach leans towards the applied rather than the pure, the rhetorical rather than the logical, the actual rather the ideal, the functional rather than the formal, the text rather than the sentence. `T;2.[‰:SRAm>m `The emphasis is on text analysis as a mode of action, a theory of language as a means of getting things done. xvzAm>fɲٺNm;Nel N w, R_~l, o~l, [ *O ؏/fN~TI{,_N g N T0$``n    F3. Am>/vN/vN/vNmN~ Schools`& 4.1 O~l: N ^J0RbN, QNbN0RvQN'k2m;l͑T͋Gl, Sl_\, NYef[l:N;N,Y:Nĉ['`l, N/fcQ'`l;q_T_'Y,e_; vQ!.s/fR NcQ]wQ(vQ/gN)Y؏(WO(u). Traditional Grammar: focus on phonetics and words; school grammar, prescriptive; influential; its terms still in use today.`   H/ 4. Am>mN~ Schools2```4.2 SSf[: k,SS,1|, SSĉ_;vQTgvelf[>m:NMQ20N~W{QNNMb;SSf[:NMQ20N~sNf[_zs^S. Historical Linguistics: language comparison, family trees of languages; laws of sound change; Neogrammarians; paved the way for modern linguistics in the 20th century. ``` ` ```` ` $`$(`( ,`,0`04`48`8<`<` `` `    X?  Y@  ZA  " 4. Am>mN~ Schools`& 4.3 "}~\: sNf[;Vy;:SRNT,Sef[TqQef[, &{SvNa'`,@bcTc/fNav; /fN*N|~, N*NsQ||~((W|~-NvMOnQ[vQaIN); /f&{Sf[-NgxQWvNh.vQtq_Tm܏. Saussure: father of modern linguistics; language/speech; arbitrariness of language; synchronic/diachronic; signifier/signified; system of signs`    I0 4. Am>mN~ Schools`4.4 'k2mRf[>m: ^bm,T,gT9hf[>m;!.s:MOf[,]wOo`T_ OOo`;;NMOTMO;;NTċ;q_T'Y;R;NIN;Vy. Functional schools in Europe: the Prague School ; the Copenhagen School: contribution to phonology; given/new information; theme/rheme; topic/comment; influential around 1920-40 0``  # 4. Am>mN~ Schools`& 4.5 V~g;NIN: ZSSe, (\,^\_, T)Re,jKQyrI{; (\-l\+YGP, Syv[;Tf[ Nv[;NINT  ~vg ; _tf[ NvL:N;NIN; American structuralism: F. Boaz, E. Sapir, Leonard Bloomfield, Z. Hariss, C. Hockett, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, empiricism in philosophy,  blank slate , behaviorism in psychology.  `*  &V J1 4. Am>mN~ Schools` %NmN~ Schools`& 4.5 VvTNYeW:ubl NvN:Wi}T;vQ‰, Tf[ Nv/Ut;NIN,_tf[ Nw;NIN; NuOeg,:_'YvRYr`;vh/fc:y,g(TN{|,g(; Chomsky s Generative grammar: a revolution; rationalism in philosophy; cognitive psychology; language is innate; initial state of mind; reveal nature of L to show nature of man.$ Z`   K24. Am>mN~ Schools`cQRBlb__S;Slrz,Sl:N8h_;‰[EQR, cQEQR, ʑEQR;vQq_Tm܏,NN3vNe;TNlt[Tf[,_tf[,{:g,b__SI{, g!.s. To formalize the description of L; independence of syntax; emphasis on explanatory power; contribution to philosophy, psychology, computer science; biology; bio-linguistics 0``  %  4. Am>mN~ Schools`& F4.6&Ofef[>m: lg+YeW, [Oe, mN~ Schools`0/fY\|~~bv'Y|~.v~g1u>yOR@bQ[.v N'YR;?QzvN'YR. (WYef[ NTeSOf[ N g!.s. Language is a system of many sub-systems; three macro function of language (ideational, interpersonal, textual function); children s seven functions; contribution to language teaching and stylistics; popular in China.`Z   & ,5. N*Nef[>m A New School?`&  wf[: /f N/fN*NeAm>m? ؏/fN*NR/e? YN20N~70t^N, sQ_N_zfT'YvsQ|, /fw|~vNR;w|~/f1uaw, `a,tuS, baS,TctI{R~b. vh N/fcQL:N, /fʑ_wL:Nv_t~gT_tǏ z, c:ỳTQ(WvmB\ĉ_. Nir: TNYeW, Jackendoff, Langacker, Lakoff, Biewish, Hudson, Fillmore,TalorI{.`~    !  M4,5. N*Nef[>m A New School?``I am not if this is a new school or what. People say language and its use are based on our bodily experience and the way conceptualize it is called cognitive linguistics. It is a new approach to the study of language and mind. Topics include structure of characterization (prototype, metaphor, mental imagery), conceptual interface between syntax and..aa`N5,5. N*Nef[>m A New School?`{semantics, the experiential and pragmatic background of language-in-use, and the relationship between language and thought.||`' .5. N*NeAm>m A New School?`&  wf[vtSR: IN~gl gnfM'`;l Nrz; lT͋Gll gaIN:S+R(&{Sޏ~SO). xvzW: tuS, i_U, lU, YIN'`, ba'`, lSI{. f[y'`: NTf[, _tf[, N{|f[, {:gyf[,^y~f[I{ gsQ. g N Tf[>m: #W0WNT>m,/OKQ)Rf[>m`    O6.5. N*NeAm>m A New School?`NPrinciples: semantic structure has no universals; syntax is not independent; syntax and vocabulary form a continuum of symbols, not distinguished in meaning. Areas: characterization, metaphor, polysemy, iconicity, grammatization etc. Highly cross-disciplinary: philosophy, psychology, computer science, neurology, anthropology etc.OZO`7. SfN& d`Rmn, 0ef[Am>m 0 Yx>y, 19950 Liu Runqing &Feng Zongxin, Schools and Theories of Linguistics, Nanjing Normal University Press, 200 4 Xb$%`#`(`b0`PiQ87. SfN& d`8Liu0Running& Cui Gang, Readings in Linguistics: Ninety Years since Saussure . (Rmn ]R 0sNf[ TW 0. 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X`7b$`sb$`t 71. :SRAm>mNR/e & b6b(  1.3 SSƉ҉TqQeƉ҉ Nw SN;uQN*NASW[, PN*NPWh. The diachronic and synchronic perspectives will form a cross, which like a coordinate. <{`zb$`JX R9(Distinction between Schools and Branches))b(` 1. :SRAm>mNR/e `  X1.2 f[vR/e: Branches: NQR:f[, |(MO)f[, ͋Glf[, b_` f[, Slf[, INf[, (uf[(?) Distinction from within: phonetics, phonology, lexicology, morphology, syntax, semantic, pragmatics (?) @b$b$ l 9 1. :SRAm>mNR/e2 `d`NYR: _tf[, >yOf[, { f[, ^y~f[, eSf[, N{| f[ 틙e^f[I{0 Distinction from without: psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, computation linguistics, neurolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, cultural linguistics, corpus linguistics, etc. $`` W>1. :SRAm>mNR/e `'YR{|: tf[, ^(uf[ Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.EEb6611. :SRAm>mNR/e `  D1.3 f[Am>m: O~l (600BC 18N~)traditional grammar; SSf[(19N~100t^) historical linguistics; sNf[_z("}}\, 20N~R) the beginning of modern linguistics; 4``` - P71. :SRAm>mNR/e ` 'k2mR;NIN(20N~20-50)European functionalism &Ofef[>m(1940 50)The London School; |~Rl(1960 s(W) Halliday s Systemic-functional grammar*`b$b);"1. :SRAm>mNR/e ` V~g;NINf[(1930 50) American structuralism Vlbcubl(1957 s) Chomsky s Generative Grammar wf[ today Cognitive linguisticsb$l $#H2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction %%b(& 2.1 b__>m l͑Rgvb__, ~g, bRTbRvR^, [ۏLb__cQTcQvb__S, Qv_t'`. The formal school: emphasize the formal, structural aspects of L, and distribution of elements; formalize the description of L; a psychological perspective.`p <#F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(2.2 R>m l͑RgvR, Rg N TB\!k NvbRvINR, :NRQ[b__, Qv>yO'`. The functional school: emphasize the functional nature of L; analyze the semantic function of elements on all levels; function determines form; a sociolinguistic perspective. 0``f F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(( "2.3 $N>mv:S+R b__;NIN:N/f_tsa;R;NIN/f>yOsa. The formal camp say language is a psychological fact; the functional camp say language is a social fact. J  b$b(8 k =%F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(2. b__;NINnfMsa/fN{|utW O;R;NIN/feg>yO[vnfMЏ(u. The formal camp say linguistic universals are men s biological inheritance; the functional camp say language similarities come from the common use of language. "`D >$F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(3.b__;NIN ?Qz`N_/fN{|vQ(WR;R;NINُ/f?QzNEvTRvSU\. The formal camp say that children are born with the ability to acquire language; the functional camp say that language learning comes from children s needs and development. 0``6?&F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(n4.b__;NINbS_brz|~xvzR;NINb>e(W>yOR-Nxvz0 The formalists regard language as an independent system; the formalists study language in the social context by referring to its social function."&`$12.[‰:SRAm>m `$  2.4 mb__l nN;TTf[ TNZTsQ|:NSTvR>mRl nNOTNyf[ 0b__>mb wbN|Rv~g ُN~gKNSN~bQV[vsQ|@bNMb glbcN NN:_vnfM'` blNNyKN:NSl wb/fvW@x@bNl/fNav VdklV~@wSP[ U\_0b0 @'2.[‰:SRAm>m ` Halliday: The basic opposition is not that between  structural and  generative grammars . The more fundamental opposition is between those that are primarily symtagmatic in orientation (by and large the formal grammars, with their roots in logic and philosophy)b S:2.[‰:SRAm>m ` and those that are primarily paradigmatic (by and large the functional ones, with their roots in rhetoric and ethnography). The former interpret a language a list of structures, among which, regular relationships may be established (b$b$A(2.[‰:SRAm>m ` (hence the introduction of transformation); they tend to emphasize universal features of language, to take grammar (which they call syntax) as the foundation of language (hence the grammar is arbitrary), and so to be organized around the sentence.b$C+2.[‰:SRAm>m ` R>mb wb/fN*NsQ|Q vQW,gsQ|PRN~gRN[sNN:_KNv N Tp bIN wZPvW@x@bNl/f6qv Vdkl/fV~@we,gb{ U\_v0$N*N5%KN gYNS _N gNvPt FON`no NN/f_ N Tv $N'Y5%_U\[݋_N_V0 0``" B)2.[‰:SRAm>m ` 2The functionalists interpret language as a network of relations, with structures coming in as the realization of these relationships; they tend to emphasize variables among languages, to take semantics as the foundation (hence the grammar is natural), and so to be organized around the text, or discourse. 33b$D*2.[‰:SRAm>m ` There are many cross-currents, with insights borrowed from one to the other; but they are ideologically fairly difficult and it is often difficulty to maintain a dialogue. 0b$`32.[‰:SRAm>m `  m `Halliday: In general the functional approach leans towards the applied rather than the pure, the rhetorical rather than the logical, the actual rather the ideal, the functional rather than the formal, the text rather than the sentence. `T;2.[‰:SRAm>m `The emphasis is on text analysis as a mode of action, a theory of language as a means of getting things done. xvzAm>fɲٺNm;Nel N w, R_~l, o~l, [ *O ؏/fN~TI{,_N g N T0$``n    F3. Am>/vN/vN/vNmN~ Schools`& 4.1 O~l: N ^J0RbN, QNbN0RvQN'k2m;l͑T͋Gl, Sl_\, NYef[l:N;N,Y:Nĉ['`l, N/fcQ'`l;q_T_'Y,e_; vQ!.s/fR NcQ]wQ(vQ/gN)Y؏(WO(u). Traditional Grammar: focus on phonetics and words; school grammar, prescriptive; influential; its terms still in use today.`   H/ 4. Am>mN~ Schools2```4.2 SSf[: k,SS,1|, SSĉ_;vQTgvelf[>m:NMQ20N~W{QNNMb;SSf[:NMQ20N~sNf[_zs^S0 Historical Linguistics: language comparison, family trees of languages; laws of sound change; Neogrammarians; paved the way for modern linguistics in the 20th century.``` ` ```` ` $`$(`( ,`,0`04`48`8<`<``` `  X?  Y@  ZA  " 4. Am>mN~ Schools`& 4.3 "}~\: sNf[;Vy;:SRNT,Sef[TqQef[, &{SvNa'`,@bcTc/fNav; /fN*N|~, N*NsQ||~((W|~-NvMOnQ[vQaIN); /f&{Sf[-NgxQWvNh.vQtq_Tm܏. Saussure: father of modern linguistics; language/speech; arbitrariness of language; synchronic/diachronic; signifier/signified; system of signs`    [D4. Am>mN~   The German philosopher Ernst Cassirer wrote:  In the whole history of science there is perhaps no more fascinating a chapter than the rise of the new science of linguistics. In its importance it may very well be compared to the new science of Galileo, which in the 17th century, changed our whole concept of the physical world. &J <&# I0 4. Am>mN~ Schools`4.4 'k2mRf[>m: ^bm,T,gT9hf[>m;!.s:MOf[,]wOo`T_ OOo`;;NMOTMO;;NTċ;q_T'Y;R;NIN;Vy0 Functional schools in Europe: the Prague School ; the Copenhagen School: contribution to phonology; given/new information; theme/rheme; topic/comment; influential around 1920-40 0``  # 4. Am>mN~ Schools`& 4.5 V~g;NIN: ZSSe, (\,^\_, T)Re,jKQyrI{; (\-l\+YGP, Syv[;Tf[ Nv[;NINT  ~vg ; _tf[ NvL:N;NIN; American structuralism: F. Boaz, E. Sapir, Leonard Bloomfield, Z. Hariss, C. Hockett, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, empiricism in philosophy,  blank slate , behaviorism in psychology.  `*  &V \EZSSe Boaz ]F(iO\ Sapir ^H L. Bloomfield ^\__IQyr Wundt `JNSu Watson aLeё~ Skinner J1 4. Am>mN~ Schools` %NmN~ Schools`& 4.5 VvTNYeW:ubl NvN:Wi}T;vQ‰, Tf[ Nv/Ut;NIN,_tf[ Nw;NIN; NuOeg,:_'YvRYr`;vh/fc:y,g(TN{|,g(; Chomsky s Generative grammar: a revolution; rationalism in philosophy; cognitive psychology; language is innate; initial state of mind; reveal nature of L to show nature of man.$ Z`   bM TNYeW Chomsky  cNAm>mN~ Schools5eċTNl Chomky s position is not only unique within linguistics at the present time, but is probably unprecedented in the whole history of the subject& Right or wrong, Chomsky s theory of grammar is undoubtedly the most dynamic and influential, and no linguist who wishes to keep abreast of current developments in his subject can afford to ignore Chomsky s theoretical pronouncements.  John LyonsZ&~dOChomsky4 It seems plain that language acquisition is based on the child s discovery of what from a formal point of view is a deep and abstract theory  a generative grammar of his language  many of the concepts and principles of which are only remotely related to experience by long and intricate chains of the unconscious quasi-inferential steps. A consideration of the character of the grammar that is acquired, theZePChomsky:degenerate quality and narrowly limited extent of the available data, the striking uniformity of the resulting grammar, and their independence of intelligence, motivation, and emotional state, over wide range of variation, leave little hope that much of the structure of the language can be learned by an organism initially uninformed as to its general character.(-- Chomsky 1965Aspects of the theory of syntax) @j 0{  fQ(  >f6q `N_WN?QzSsNb__҉^ w/fNymeY0bavt sSk틄vNyubl0ُylvYi_TSR_{~Ǐ+o0 YBgveaƋvNctǏ z MbN~ z zvޏ0 z_`N`?Qz`N_vl'`( Nc0Rv틙e(ϑKN]TVKN\ ?Qz`N_NzfR0R:g0`~kesQ| NNNvsXV }CS]N+R gT@b_lvtS`N0WvmN~ Schools`cQRBlb__S;Slrz,Sl:N8h_;‰[EQR, cQEQR, ʑEQR;vQq_Tm܏,NN3vNe;TNlt[Tf[,_tf[,{:g,b__SI{, g!.s. To formalize the description of L; independence of syntax; emphasis on explanatory power; contribution to philosophy, psychology, computer science; biology; bio-linguistics 0``  gRChomsky(@In  The Architecture of Language (2002:50) he wrote:  Lots of people reject the proposal that language is innate but nobody answers them. The reason why nobody answers is that their arguments would make no sense. There s no way to answer them. To say that  language is not innate is to say that there is no difference between my granddaughter, a rock and a rabbit. In other words, if you take a rock, a rabbit andhSChomskylmy granddaughter and put them in a community where people are talking English, they ll all learn English. If people believe that, then they believe that language is not innate. If they believe that there is a difference between my granddaughter, a rabbit and a rock, then they believe that language is innate. 77$6iTComsky(Chomsky (1988) & teaching should not be compared to filling a bottle with water but rather to helping a flower to grow in its own way. As any good teacher knows, the methods of instruction and range of material covered are of small important as compared with the success in arousing the natural curiosity of the students$Uwf[uv6q}YGY_ and stimulating their interest in pZo$0B ! jUChomsky(exploring on their ownoRNNSbc"}vtQ. What the students learn passively will be quickly forgotten. What the students discover for themselves when their natural curiosity and creative impulses are aroused not only will be remembered but will be the basis for further exploration and inquiry and perhaps significant intellectual contributions.TZT$$ 1%  4. Am>mN~ Schools`& F4.6&Ofef[>m: lg+YeW, [Oe, mN~ Schools`0/fY\|~~bv'Y|~.v~g1u>yOR@bQ[.v N'YR;?QzvN'YR. (WYef[ NTeSOf[ N g!.s. Language is a system of many sub-systems; three macro function of language (ideational, interpersonal, textual function); children s seven functions; contribution to language teaching and stylistics; popular in China.`Z   & ,5. N*Nef[>m A New School?`&  wf[: /f N/fN*NeAm>m? ؏/fN*NR/e? YN20N~70t^N, sQ_N_zfT'YvsQ|, /fw|~vNR;w|~/f1uaw, `a,tuS, baS,TctI{R~b. vh N/fcQL:N, /fʑ_wL:Nv_t~gT_tǏ z, c:ỳTQ(WvmB\ĉ_. Nir: TNYeW, Jackendoff, Langacker, Lakoff, Biewish, Hudson, Fillmore,TalorI{.`~    !  M4,5. N*Nef[>m A New School?``I am not if this is a new school or what. People say language and its use are based on our bodily experience and the way conceptualize it is called cognitive linguistics. It is a new approach to the study of language and mind. Topics include structure of characterization (prototype, metaphor, mental imagery), conceptual interface between syntax and..aa`N5,5. N*Nef[>m A New School?`{semantics, the experiential and pragmatic background of language-in-use, and the relationship between language and thought.||`' .5. N*NeAm>m A New School?`&  wf[vtSR: IN~gl gnfM'`;l Nrz; lT͋Gll gaIN:S+R(&{Sޏ~SO). xvzW: tuS, i_U, lU, YIN'`, ba'`, lSI{. f[y'`: NTf[, _tf[, N{|f[, {:gyf[,^y~f[I{ gsQ. g N Tf[>m: #W0WNT>m,/OKQ)Rf[>m`    O6.5. N*NeAm>m A New School?`NPrinciples: semantic structure has no universals; syntax is not independent; syntax and vocabulary form a continuum of symbols, not distinguished in meaning. Areas: characterization, metaphor, polysemy, iconicity, grammatization etc. Highly cross-disciplinary: philosophy, psychology, computer science, neurology, anthropology etc.OZO`7. SfN& d`Rmn, 0ef[Am>m 0 Yx>y, 19950 Liu Runqing &Feng Zongxin, Schools and Theories of Linguistics, Nanjing Normal University Press, 200 4 Xb$%`#`(`b0`PiQ87. SfN& d`8Liu0Running& Cui Gang, Readings in Linguistics: Ninety Years since Saussure . (Rmn ]R 0sNf[ TW 0. Yx>y 2009 Rmn ee 0ef[Ye z 0 Yx>y 2005 in English) `b$8b$Kb$b$`L "`b""`ON Thanks for your attention and cooperation !L,bBb6`,b0,6 QNN`` V10\ONe2000W[e0[GPT~NN\ON\ON_{&{TBl0 20 NTNNBl ͑ZP0S͑ZPN!k 30,gf[g_fN 0ef[Am>m 0R Schools and Theories of Linguistics R 4. ,gf[g\ONN  1 ċN*Nf[/g‰p2 ċNN,gf[/gW\O3 ċ~NMO W Tf[[0 Fb&bb $     0 L(  L L s *S  CS"  `}  S   L s *S  DS"  ` S  H L 0޽h ? h80___PPT10.>P3b  0 p(     6|? CS"  `}  ?    6д0 DS" / ? H  0޽h ? f3f3___PPT10i.j@+D=' = @B +  0  P(  P P  6S  CS"  `}  S   P  6ğS  DS"  ` S  H P 0޽h ? h80___PPT10.>><^  0 ^(  r  S 0?C `}  ?   lAD20069283657736 H  0޽h ? h80___PPT10. е޲T  0 T(  r  S 0C `}  0   bADEsapir[1]w6 ?H  0޽h ? h80___PPT10.   0 F>(  ~  s *c?C `}  ?    6T? DS"  ` ? `  C 8A 200692831131514m ,H  0޽h ? f3f380___PPT10.ٹT  0 T(  r  S p?C `}  ?   bA Dwundt  ?H  0޽h ? h80___PPT10. P;n  0 (  r  S @0C `}  0    nA Dimage"0 0 ?H  0޽h ? h80___PPT10.    0 (  ~  s *T0C `}  0   A  D*SkinnerOperant Conditioning]c< 0H  0޽h ? fff80___PPT10.w|  0 |(  r  S j0C `}     A Dchomsky-closeNoam Chomsky ?H  0޽h ? h80___PPT10. o $  0 $(  r  S LC `}   r  S  D `<  H  0޽h ? h80___PPT10. G$  0  $(  r  S 8.C `}   r  S  D `  H  0޽h ? h80___PPT10. $  0 0$(  r  S C `   r  S tD Y  H  0޽h ? h80___PPT10. ?s$  0 @$(  r  S $C `   r  S D, `  H  0޽h ? h80___PPT10. p$  0 P$(  r  S  $C'`   r  S D `  H  0޽h ? h80___PPT10. 6$  0 `$(  r  S 8C `   r  S CD `  H  0޽h ? h80___PPT10. Q$  0 p$(  r  S C `j   r  S  D `i  H  0޽h ? h80___PPT10. @$  0 $(  r  S C `j   r  S D `i  H  0޽h ? h80___PPT10. P߁f  0 f(  r  S P:C `}     tA D20069283723130]JS H  0޽h ? h80___PPT10. y  0 (  ~  s * C `}   ~  s * |D `  b  C :A  200692831131685 H  0޽h ? fff80___PPT10.f7  0  (  ~  s *ڥC `}   ~  s *D `  `  C 8A 20069283630651ZjwH  0޽h ? fff___PPT10i.l+D=' = @B +rdBH 0[0/ؓ>xԝjک2^P3m1e(  8 $htt      !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvDxyz{|}~TKreud_LIFE.jpgerrata.htmlhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/errata.html"Volume1/chap1.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/chap1.pdf"Volume1/chap2.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/chap2.pdf"Volume1/chap3.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/chap3.pdf&"Volume2/chap1.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume2/chap1.pdf'"Volume2/chap2.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume2/chap2.pdf("Volume2/chap3.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume2/chap3.pdf)"Volume2/chap4.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume2/chap4.pdf."Volume1/chap4.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/chap4.pdf, computation linguistics, neurolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, cultural linguistics, corpus linguistics, etc. $`` W>1. :SRAm>mNR/e `'YR{|: tf[, ^(uf[ Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.EEb6611. :SRAm>mNR/e `  D1.3 f[Am>m: O~l (600BC 18N~)traditional grammar; SSf[(19N~100t^) historical linguistics; sNf[_z("}}\, 20N~R) the beginning of modern linguistics; 4``` - P71. :SRAm>mNR/e ` 'k2mR;NIN(20N~20-50)European functionalism &Ofef[>m(1940 50)The London School; |~Rl(1960 s(W) Halliday s Systemic-functional grammar*`b$b);"1. :SRAm>mNR/e ` V~g;NINf[(1930 50) American structuralism Vlbcubl(1957 s) Chomsky s Generative Grammar wf[ today Cognitive linguisticsb$l $#H2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction %%b(& 2.1 b__>m l͑Rgvb__, ~g, bRTbRvR^, [ۏLb__cQTcQvb__S, Qv_t'`. The formal school: emphasize the formal, structural aspects of L, and distribution of elements; formalize the description of L; a psychological perspective.`p <#F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(2.2 R>m l͑RgvR, Rg N TB\!k NvbRvINR, :NRQ[b__, Qv>yO'`. The functional school: emphasize the functional nature of L; analyze the semantic function of elements on all levels; function determines form; a sociolinguistic perspective. 0``f F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(( "2.3 $N>mv:S+R b__;NIN:N/f_tsa;R;NIN!_0 MC SYSTEMMC SYSTEM[     m Ļʾ MC SYSTEMW \Arial Wingdings _GB2312RippleAѧ̸ Schools of Linguistics: some random thoughtsΪҪ⣿ 1. /f>yOsa. The formal camp say language is a psychological fact; the functional camp say language is a social fact. J  b$b(8 k =%F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(2. b__;NINnfMsa/fN{|utW O;R;NIN/feg>yO[vnfMЏ(u. The formal camp say linguistic universals are men s biological inheritance; the functional camp say language similarities come from the common use of language. "`D >$F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(3.b__;NIN ?Qz`N_/fN{|vQ(WR;R;NINُ/f?QzNEvTRvSU\. The formal camp say that children are born with the ability to acquire language; the functional camp say that language learning comes from children s needs and development. 0``6?&F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(n4.b__;NINbS_brz|~xvzR;NINb>e(W>yOR-Nxvz0 The formalists regard language as an independent system; the formalists study language in the social context by referring to its social function."&`$12.[‰:SRAm>m `$  2.4 mb__l nN;TTf[ TNZTsQ|:NSTvR>mRl nNOTNyf[ 0b__>mb wbN|Rv~g ُN~gKNSN~bQV[vsQ|@bNMb glbcN NN:_vnfM'` blNNyKN:NSl wb/fvW@x@bNl/fNav VdklV~@wSP[ U\_0b0 @'2.[‰:SRAm>m ` Halliday: The basic opposition is not that between  structural and  generative grammars . The more fundamental opposition is between those that are primarily symtagmatic in orientation (by and large the formal grammars, with their roots in logic and philosophy)b S:2.[‰:SRAm>m ` and those that are primarily paradigmatic (by and large the functional ones, with their roots in rhetoric and ethnography). The former interpret a language a list of structures, among which, regular relationships may be established (b$b$A(2.[‰:SRAm>m ` (hence the introduction of transformation); they tend to emphasize universal features of language, to take grammar (which they call syntax) as the foundation of language (hence the grammar is arbitrary), and so to be organized around the sentence.b$C+2.[‰:SRAm>m ` R>mb wb/fN*NsQ|Q vQW,gsQ|PRN~gRN[sNN:_KNv N Tp bIN wZPvW@x@bNl/f6qv Vdkl/fV~@we,gb{ U\_v0$N*N5%KN gYNS _N gNvPt FON`no NN/f_ N Tv $N'Y5%_U\[݋_N_V0 0``" B)2.[‰:SRAm>m ` 2The functionalists interpret language as a network of relations, with structures coming in as the realization of these relationships; they tend to emphasize variables among languages, to take semantics as the foundation (hence the grammar is natural), and so to be organized around the text, or discourse. 33b$D*2.[‰:SRAm>m ` There are many cross-currents, with insights borrowed from one to the other; but they are ideologically fairly difficult and it is often difficulty to maintain a dialogue. 0b$`32.[‰:SRAm>m `  m `Halliday: In general the functional approach leans towards the applied rather than the pure, the rhetorical rather than the logical, the actual rather the ideal, the functional rather than the formal, the text rather than the sentence. `T;2.[‰:SRAm>m `The emphasis is on text analysis as a mode of action, a theory of language as a means of getting things done. xvzAm>fɲٺNm;Nel N w, R_~l, o~l, [ *O ؏/fN~TI{,_N g N T0$``n    F3. Am>/vN/vN/vNmN~ Schools`& 4.1 O~l: N ^J0RbN, QNbN0RvQN'k2m;l͑T͋Gl, Sl_\, NYef[l:N;N,Y:Nĉ['`l, N/fcQ'`l;q_T_'Y,e_; vQ!.s/fR NcQ]wQ(vQ/gN)Y؏(WO(u). Traditional Grammar: focus on phonetics and words; school grammar, prescriptive; influential; its terms still in use today.`   H/ 4. Am>mN~ Schools2```4.2 SSf[: k,SS,1|, SSĉ_;vQTgvelf[>m:NMQ20N~W{QNNMb;SSf[:NMQ20N~sNf[_zs^S0 Historical Linguistics: language comparison, family trees of languages; laws of sound change; Neogrammarians; paved the way for modern linguistics in the 20th century.``` ` ```` ` $`$(`( ,`,0`04`48`8<`<``` `  X?  Y@  ZA  " 4. Am>mN~ Schools`& 4.3 "}~\: sNf[;Vy;:SRNT,Sef[TqQef[, &{SvNa'`,@bcTc/fNav; /fN*N|~, N*NsQ||~((W|~-NvMOnQ[vQaIN); /f&{Sf[-NgxQWvNh.vQtq_Tm܏. Saussure: father of modern linguistics; language/speech; arbitrariness of language; synchronic/diachronic; signifier/signified; system of signs`    [D4. Am>mN~   The German philosopher Ernst Cassirer wrote:  In the whole history of science there is perhaps no more fascinating a chapter than the rise of the new science of linguistics. In its importance it may very well be compared to the new science of Galileo, which in the 17th century, changed our whole concept of the physical world. &J <&# I0 4. Am>mN~ Schools`4.4 'k2mRf[>m: ^bm,T,gT9hf[>m;!.s:MOf[,]wOo`T_ OOo`;;NMOTMO;;NTċ;q_T'Y;R;NIN;Vy0 Functional schools in Europe: the Prague School ; the Copenhagen School: contribution to phonology; given/new information; theme/rheme; topic/comment; influential around 1920-40 0``  # 4. Am>mN~ Schools`& 4.5 V~g;NIN: ZSSe, (\,^\_, T)Re,jKQyrI{; (\-l\+YGP, Syv[;Tf[ Nv[;NINT  ~vg ; _tf[ NvL:N;NIN; American structuralism: F. Boaz, E. Sapir, Leonard Bloomfield, Z. Hariss, C. Hockett, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, empiricism in philosophy,  blank slate , behaviorism in psychology.  `*  &V \EZSSe Boaz ]F(iO\ Sapir ^H L. Bloomfield ^\__IQyr Wundt `JNSu Watson aLeё~ Skinner J1 4. Am>mN~ Schools` %NmN~ Schools`& 4.5 VvTNYeW:ubl NvN:Wi}T;vQ‰, Tf[ Nv/Ut;NIN,_tf[ Nw;NIN; NuOeg,:_'YvRYr`;vh/fc:y,g(TN{|,g(; Chomsky s Generative grammar: a revolution; rationalism in philosophy; cognitive psychology; language is innate; initial state of mind; reveal nature of L to show nature of man.$ Z`   bM TNYeW Chomsky  cNAm>mN~ Schools5eċTNl Chomky s position is not only unique within linguistics at the present time, but is probably unprecedented in the whole history of the subject& Right or wrong, Chomsky s theory of grammar is undoubtedly the most dynamic and influential, and no linguist who wishes to keep abreast of current developments in his subject can afford to ignore Chomsky s theoretical pronouncements.  John LyonsZ&~dOChomsky4 It seems plain that language acquisition is based on the child s discovery of what from a formal point of view is a deep and abstract theory  a generative grammar of his language  many of the concepts and principles of which are only remotely related to experience by long and intricate chains of the unconscious quasi-inferential steps. A consideration of the character of the grammar that is acquired, theZePChomsky:degenerate quality and narrowly limited extent of the available data, the striking uniformity of the resulting grammar, and their independence of intelligence, motivation, and emotional state, over wide range of variation, leave little hope that much of the structure of the language can be learned by an organism initially uninformed as to its general character.(-- Chomsky 1965Aspects of the theory of syntax) @j 0{  fQ(  >f6q `N_WN?QzSsNb__҉^ w/fNymeY0bavt sSk틄vNyubl0ُylvYi_TSR_{~Ǐ+o0 YBgveaƋvNctǏ z MbN~ z zvޏ0 z_`N`?Qz`N_vl'`( Nc0Rv틙e(ϑKN]TVKN\ ?Qz`N_NzfR0R:g0`~kesQ| NNNvsXV }CS]N+R gT@b_lvtS`N0WvmN~ Schools`cQRBlb__S;Slrz,Sl:N8h_;‰[EQR, cQEQR, ʑEQR;vQq_Tm܏,NN3vNe;TNlt[Tf[,_tf[,{:g,b__SI{, g!.s. To formalize the description of L; independence of syntax; emphasis on explanatory power; contribution to philosophy, psychology, computer science; biology; bio-linguistics 0``  gRChomsky(@In  The Architecture of Language (2002:50) he wrote:  Lots of people reject the proposal that language is innate but nobody answers them. The reason why nobody answers is that their arguments would make no sense. There s no way to answer them. To say that  language is not innate is to say that there is no difference between my granddaughter, a rock and a rabbit. In other words, if you take a rock, a rabbit andhSChomskylmy granddaughter and put them in a community where people are talking English, they ll all learn English. If people believe that, then they believe that language is not innate. If they believe that there is a difference between my granddaughter, a rabbit and a rock, then they believe that language is innate. 77$6iTComsky(Chomsky (1988) & teaching should not be compared to filling a bottle with water but rather to helping a flower to grow in its own way. As any good teacher knows, the methods of instruction and range of material covered are of small important as compared with the success in arousing the natural curiosity of the students$Uwf[uv6q}YGY_ and stimulating their interest in pZo$0B ! jUChomsky(exploring on their ownoRNNSbc"}vtQ. What the students learn passively will be quickly forgotten. What the students discover for themselves when their natural curiosity and creative impulses are aroused not only will be remembered but will be the basis for further exploration and inquiry and perhaps significant intellectual contributions.TZT$$ 1%  4. Am>mN~ Schools`& F4.6&Ofef[>m: lg+YeW, [Oe, mN~ Schools`0/fY\|~~bv'Y|~.v~g1u>yOR@bQ[.v N'YR;?QzvN'YR. (WYef[ NTeSOf[ N g!.s. Language is a system of many sub-systems; three macro function of language (ideational, interpersonal, textual function); children s seven functions; contribution to language teaching and stylistics; popular in China.`Z   & ,5. N*Nef[>m A New School?`&  wf[: /f N/fN*NeAm>m? ؏/fN*NR/e? YN20N~70t^N, sQ_N_zfT'YvsQ|, /fw|~vNR;w|~/f1uaw, `a,tuS, baS,TctI{R~b. vh N/fcQL:N, /fʑ_wL:Nv_t~gT_tǏ z, c:ỳTQ(WvmB\ĉ_. Nir: TNYeW, Jackendoff, Langacker, Lakoff, Biewish, Hudson, Fillmore,TalorI{.`~    !  M4,5. N*Nef[>m A New School?``I am not if this is a new school or what. People say language and its use are based on our bodily experience and the way conceptualize it is called cognitive linguistics. It is a new approach to the study of language and mind. Topics include structure of characterization (prototype, metaphor, mental imagery), conceptual interface between syntax and..aa`N5,5. N*Nef[>m A New School?`{semantics, the experiential and pragmatic background of language-in-use, and the relationship between language and thought.||`' .5. N*NeAm>m A New School?`&  wf[vtSR: IN~gl gnfM'`;l Nrz; lT͋Gll gaIN:S+R(&{Sޏ~SO). xvzW: tuS, i_U, lU, YIN'`, ba'`, lSI{. f[y'`: NTf[, _tf[, N{|f[, {:gyf[,^y~f[I{ gsQ. g N Tf[>m: #W0WNT>m,/OKQ)Rf[>m`    O6.5. N*NeAm>m A New School?`NPrinciples: semantic structure has no universals; syntax is not independent; syntax and vocabulary form a continuum of symbols, not distinguished in meaning. Areas: characterization, metaphor, polysemy, iconicity, grammatization etc. Highly cross-disciplinary: philosophy, psychology, computer science, neurology, anthropology etc.OZO`7. SfN& d`Rmn, 0ef[Am>m 0 Yx>y, 19950 Liu Runqing &Feng Zongxin, Schools and Theories of Linguistics, Nanjing Normal University Press, 200 4 Xb$%`#`(`b0`PiQ87. SfN& d`8Liu0Running& Cui Gang, Readings in Linguistics: Ninety Years since Saussure . (Rmn ]R 0sNf[ TW 0. 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X`7b$`sb$`t 71. :SRAm>mNR/e & b6b(  1.3 SSƉ҉TqQeƉ҉ Nw SN;uQN*NASW[, PN*NPWh. The diachronic and synchronic perspectives will form a cross, which like a coordinate. <{`zb$`JX R9(Distinction between Schools and Branches))b(` 1. :SRAm>mNR/e `  X1.2 f[vR/e: Branches: NQR:f[, |(MO)f[, ͋Glf[, b_` f[, Slf[, INf[, (uf[(?) Distinction from within: phonetics, phonology, lexicology, morphology, syntax, semantic, pragmatics (?) @b$b$ l 9 1. :SRAm>mNR/e2 `d`NYR: _tf[, >yOf[, { f[, ^y~f[, eSf[, N{| f[ 틙e^f[I{0 Distinction from without: psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, computation linguistics, neurolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, cultural linguistics, corpus linguistics, etc. $`` W>1. :SRAm>mNR/e `'YR{|: tf[, ^(uf[ Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.EEb6611. :SRAm>mNR/e `  D1.3 f[Am>m: O~l (600BC 18N~)traditional grammar; SSf[(19N~100t^) historical linguistics; sNf[_z("}}\, 20N~R) the beginning of modern linguistics; 4``` - P71. :SRAm>mNR/e ` 'k2mR;NIN(20N~20-50)European functionalism &Ofef[>m(1940 50)The London School; |~Rl(1960 s(W) Halliday s Systemic-functional grammar*`b$b);"1. :SRAm>mNR/e ` V~g;NINf[(1930 50) American structuralism Vlbcubl(1957 s) Chomsky s Generative Grammar wf[ today Cognitive linguisticsb$l $#H2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction %%b(& 2.1 b__>m l͑Rgvb__, ~g, bRTbRvR^, [ۏLb__cQTcQvb__S, Qv_t'`. The formal school: emphasize the formal, structural aspects of L, and distribution of elements; formalize the description of L; a psychological perspective.`p <#F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(2.2 R>m l͑RgvR, Rg N TB\!k NvbRvINR, :NRQ[b__, Qv>yO'`. The functional school: emphasize the functional nature of L; analyze the semantic function of elements on all levels; function deRoot EntrydO) @PicturesCurrent User8SummaryInformation((Utermines form; a sociolinguistic perspective. 0``f F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(( "2.3 $N>mv:S+R b__;NIN:N/f_tsa;R;NIN/f>yOsa. The formal camp say language is a psychological fact; the functional camp say language is a social fact. J  b$b(8 k =%F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(2. b__;NINnfMsa/fN{|utW O;R;NIN/feg>yO[vnfMЏ(u. The formal camp say linguistic universals are men s biological inheritance; the functional camp say language similarities come from the common use of language. "`D >$F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(3.b__;NIN ?Qz`N_/fN{|vQ(WR;R;NINُ/f?QzNEvTRvSU\. The formal camp say that children are born with the ability to acquire language; the functional camp say that language learning comes from children s needs and development. 0``6?&F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(n4.b__;NINbS_brz|~xvzR;NINb>e(W>yOR-Nxvz0 The formalists regard language as an independent system; the formalists study language in the social context by referring to its social function."&`$12.[‰:SRAm>m `$  2.4 mb__l nN;TTf[ TNZTsQ|:NSTvR>mRl nNOTNyf[ 0b__>mb wbN|Rv~g ُN~gKNSN~bQV[vsQ|@bNMb glbcN NN:_vnfM'` blNNyKN:NSl wb/fvW@x@bNl/fNav VdklV~@wSP[ U\_0b0 @'2.[‰:SRAm>m ` Halliday: The basic opposition is not that between  structural and  generative grammars . The more fundamental opposition is between those that are primarily symtagmatic in orientation (by and large the formal grammars, with their roots in logic and philosophy)b S:2.[‰:SRAm>m ` and those that are primarily paradigmatic (by and large the functional ones, with their roots in rhetoric and ethnography). The former interpret a language a list of structures, among which, regular relationships may be established (b$b$A(2.[‰:SRAm>m ` (hence the introduction of transformation); they tend to emphasize universal features of language, to take grammar (which they call syntax) as the foundation of language (hence the grammar is arbitrary), and so to be organized around the sentence.b$C+2.[‰:SRAm>m ` R>mb wb/fN*NsQ|Q vQW,gsQ|PRN~gRN[sNN:_KNv N Tp bIN wZPvW@x@bNl/f6qv Vdkl/fV~@we,gb{ U\_v0$N*N5%KN gYNS _N gNvPt FON`no NN/f_ N Tv $N'Y5%_U\[݋_N_V0 0``" B)2.[‰:SRAm>m ` 2The functionalists interpret language as a network of relations, with structures coming in as the realization of these relationships; they tend to emphasize variables among languages, to take semantics as the foundation (hence the grammar is natural), and so to be organized around the text, or discourse. 33b$D*2.[‰:SRAm>m ` There are many cross-currents, with insights borrowed from one to the other; but they are ideologically fairly difficult and it is often difficulty to maintain a dialogue. 0b$`32.[‰:SRAm>m `  m `Halliday: In general the functional approach leans towards the applied rather than the pure, the rhetorical rather than the logical, the actual rather the ideal, the functional rather than the formal, the text rather than the sentence. `T;2.[‰:SRAm>m `The emphasis is on text analysis as a mode of action, a theory of language as a means of getting things done. xvzAm>fɲٺNm;Nel N w, R_~l, o~l, [ *O ؏/fN~TI{,_N g N T0$``n    F3. Am>/vN/vN/vNmN~ Schools`& 4.1 O~l: N ^J0RbN, QNbN0RvQN'k2m;l͑T͋Gl, Sl_\, NYef[l:N;N,Y:Nĉ['`l, N/fcQ'`l;q_T_'Y,e_; vQ!.s/fR NcQ]wQ(vQ/gN)Y؏(WO(u). Traditional Grammar: focus on phonetics and words; school grammar, prescriptive; influential; its terms still in use today.`   H/ 4. Am>mN~ Schools2```4.2 SSf[: k,SS,1|, SSĉ_;vQTgvelf[>m:NMQ20N~W{QNNMb;SSf[:NMQ20N~sNf[_zs^S0 Historical Linguistics: language comparison, family trees of languages; laws of sound change; Neogrammarians; paved the way for modern linguistics in the 20th century.``` ` ```` ` $`$(`( ,`,0`04`48`8<`<``` `  X?  Y@  ZA  " 4. Am>mN~ Schools`& 4.3 "}~\: sNf[;Vy;:SRNT,Sef[TqQef[, &{SvNa'`,@bcTc/fNav; /fN*N|~, N*NsQ||~((W|~-NvMOnQ[vQaIN); /f&{Sf[-NgxQWvNh.vQtq_Tm܏. Saussure: father of modern linguistics; language/speech; arbitrariness of language; synchronic/diachronic; signifier/signified; system of signs`    n["_KQwmY E. Durkheim$ o\&[OmO_ Sigmund Freud [D4. Am>mN~  | _VTf[[ Ernst Cassirerb"}~\N=O)Reuvcv^:  In the whole history of science there is perhaps no more fascinating a chapter than the rise of the new science of linguistics. In its importance it may very well be compared to the new science of Galileo, which in the 17th century, changed our whole concept of the physical world. H?Z#$$ $<$L  I0 4. Am>mN~ Schools`4.4 'k2mRf[>m: ^bm,T,gT9hf[>m;!.s:MOf[,]wOo`T_ OOo`;;NMOTMO;;NTċ;q_T'Y;R;NIN;Vy0 Functional schools in Europe: the Prague School ; the Copenhagen School: contribution to phonology; given/new information; theme/rheme; topic/comment; influential around 1920-40 0``  # 4. Am>mN~ Schools`& 4.5 V~g;NIN: ZSSe, (\,^\_, T)Re,jKQyrI{; (\-l\+YGP, Syv[;Tf[ Nv[;NINT  ~vg ; _tf[ NvL:N;NIN; American structuralism: F. Boaz, E. Sapir, Leonard Bloomfield, Z. Hariss, C. Hockett, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, empiricism in philosophy,  blank slate , behaviorism in psychology.  `*  &V \EZSSe Boaz ]F(iO\ Sapir ^H L. Bloomfield ^\__IQyr Wundt `JNSu Watson aLeё~ Skinner J1 4. Am>mN~ Schools` %NmN~ Schools`& 4.5 VvTNYeW:ubl NvN:Wi}T;vQ‰, Tf[ Nv/Ut;NIN,_tf[ Nw;NIN; NuOeg,:_'YvRYr`;vh/fc:y,g(TN{|,g(; Chomsky s Generative grammar: a revolution; rationalism in philosophy; cognitive psychology; language is innate; initial state of mind; reveal nature of L to show nature of man.$ Z`   bM TNYeW Chomsky  cNAm>mN~ Schools5eċTNl Chomky s position is not only unique within linguistics at the present time, but is probably unprecedented in the whole history of the subject& Right or wrong, Chomsky s theory of grammar is undoubtedly the most dynamic and influential, and no linguist who wishes to keep abreast of current developments in his subject can afford to ignore Chomsky s theoretical pronouncements.  John LyonsZ&~dOChomsky4 It seems plain that language acquisition is based on the child s discovery of what from a formal point of view is a deep and abstract theory  a generative grammar of his language  many of the concepts and principles of which are only remotely related to experience by long and intricate chains of the unconscious quasi-inferential steps. A consideration of the character of the grammar that is acquired, theZePChomsky:degenerate quality and narrowly limited extent of the available data, the striking uniformity of the resulting grammar, and their independence of intelligence, motivation, and emotional state, over wide range of variation, leave little hope that much of the structure of the language can be learned by an organism initially uninformed as to its general character.(-- Chomsky 1965Aspects of the theory of syntax) @j 0{  fQ(  >f6q `N_WN?QzSsNb__҉^ w/fNymeY0bavt sSk틄vNyubl0ُylvYi_TSR_{~Ǐ+o0 YBgveaƋvNctǏ z MbN~ z zvޏ0 z_`N`?Qz`N_vl'`( Nc0Rv틙e(ϑKN]TVKN\ ?Qz`N_NzfR0R:g0`~kesQ| NNNvsXV }CS]N+R gT@b_lvtS`N0WvmN~ Schools`cQRBlb__S;Slrz,Sl:N8h_;‰[EQR, cQEQR, ʑEQR;vQq_Tm܏,NN3vNe;TNlt[Tf[,_tf[,{:g,b__SI{, g!.s. To formalize the description of L; independence of syntax; emphasis on explanatory power; contribution to philosophy, psychology, computer science; biology; bio-linguistics 0``  gRChomsky(@In  The Architecture of Language (2002:50) he wrote:  Lots of people reject the proposal that language is innate but nobody answers them. The reason why nobody answers is that their arguments would make no sense. There s no way to answer them. To say that  language is not innate is to say that there is no difference between my granddaughter, a rock and a rabbit. In other words, if you take a rock, a rabbit andhSChomskylmy granddaughter and put them in a community where people are talking English, they ll all learn English. If people believe that, then they believe that language is not innate. If they believe that there is a difference between my granddaughter, a rabbit and a rock, then they believe that language is innate. 77$6iTComsky(Chomsky (1988) & teaching should not be compared to filling a bottle with water but rather to helping a flower to grow in its own way. As any good teacher knows, the methods of instruction and range of material covered are of small important as compared with the success in arousing the natural curiosity of the students$Uwf[uv6q}YGY_ and stimulating their interest in pZo$0B ! jUChomsky(exploring on their ownoRNNSbc"}vtQ. What the students learn passively will be quickly forgotten. What the students discover for themselves when their natural curiosity and creative impulses are aroused not only will be remembered but will be the basis for further exploration and inquiry and perhaps significant intellectual contributions.TZT$$ 1%  4. Am>mN~ Schools`& F4.6&Ofef[>m: lg+YeW, [Oe, mN~ Schools`0/fY\|~~bv'Y|~.v~g1u>yOR@bQ[.v N'YR;?QzvN'YR. (WYef[ NTeSOf[ N g!.s. Language is a system of many sub-systems; three macro function of language (ideational, interpersonal, textual function); children s seven functions; contribution to language teaching and stylistics; popular in China.`Z   & ,5. N*Nef[>m A New School?`&  wf[: /f N/fN*NeAm>m? ؏/fN*NR/e? YN20N~70t^N, sQ_N_zfT'YvsQ|, /fw|~vNR;w|~/f1uaw, `a,tuS, baS,TctI{R~b. vh N/fcQL:N, /fʑ_wL:Nv_t~gT_tǏ z, c:ỳTQ(WvmB\ĉ_. Nir: TNYeW, Jackendoff, Langacker, Lakoff, Biewish, Hudson, Fillmore,TalorI{.`~    !  M4,5. N*Nef[>m A New School?``I am not if this is a new school or what. People say language and its use are based on our bodily experience and the way conceptualize it is called cognitive linguistics. It is a new approach to the study of language and mind. Topics include structure of characterization (prototype, metaphor, mental imagery), conceptual interface between syntax and..aa`N5,5. N*Nef[>m A New School?`{semantics, the experiential and pragmatic background of language-in-use, and the relationship between language and thought.||`' .5. N*NeAm>m A New School?`&  wf[vtSR: IN~gl gnfM'`;l Nrz; lT͋Gll gaIN:S+R(&{Sޏ~SO). xvzW: tuS, i_U, lU, YIN'`, ba'`, lSI{. f[y'`: NTf[, _tf[, N{|f[, {:gyf[,^y~f[I{ gsQ. g N Tf[>m: #W0WNT>m,/OKQ)Rf[>m`    O6.5. N*NeAm>m A New School?`NPrinciples: semantic structure has no universals; syntax is not independent; syntax and vocabulary form a continuum of symbols, not distinguished in meaning. Areas: characterization, metaphor, polysemy, iconicity, grammatization etc. Highly cross-disciplinary: philosophy, psychology, computer science, neurology, anthropology etc.OZO`7. SfN& d`Rmn, 0ef[Am>m 0 Yx>y, 19950 Liu Runqing &Feng Zongxin, Schools and Theories of Linguistics, Nanjing Normal University Press, 200 4 Xb$%`#`(`b0`PiQ87. SfN& d`8Liu0Running& Cui Gang, Readings in Linguistics: Ninety Years since Saussure . (Rmn ]R 0sNf[ TW 0. Yx>y 2009 Rmn ee 0ef[Ye z 0 Yx>y 2005 in English) `b$8b$Kb$b$`L "`b""`ON Thanks for your attention and cooperation !L,bBb6`,b0,  0  (   r   S ̙? C `}  ?      A*D150px-Emile_Durkheim"/0  0 H   0޽h ? h80___PPT10.   0 $(  r  S P\? C `}  ?     A2 D200px-Sigmund_Freud_LIFE"zw0 0 H  0޽h ? h80___PPT10. |M  0 p(     6|? CS"  `  ?    6д0 DS" i ? H  0޽h ? f3f3___PPT10i.j@+D=' ? = @B +rz[:n w5+8Dz=o1}(   $http://www.nndb.com/people/078/000030985/john-b-watson-1-sized.jpghttp://www.nndb.com/people/078/000030985/john-b-watson-1-sized.jpg :/wiki/File:Emile_Durkheim.jpghhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emile_Durkheim.jpgB/wiki/File:Sigmund_Freud_LIFE.jpgphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sigmund_Freud_LIFE.jpg/ 00DArial3120TT,ܖ 0ܖD[SOal3120TT,ܖ 0ܖ DWingdings0TT,ܖ 0ܖ0DwiSO_GB23120TT,ܖ 0ܖ1@ .  @n?" dd@  @@`` <40L !"+-H.G068;<>@BCDFGHIJKLMPQRSTVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdghiklmopqrstuvwxy{}~b$ ADseBM7 =R$k4}r`@n3(=R$ZKYյNZѮR$ZhQNe{\ bzR$[;M8/&0@ϋR$YTbLӰχOR$G "n\G TR$dw 2iC  )R$>h(N45R$ NwbjUߊWyARR$CdJa@c$%R$YjFUK(G}R$GD|N.Xlc6.U6R$$U>QDJFnR$TtT'r 0AA 3f@8ʚ;ʚ;g4BdBdt^ 0vppp@ <4dddd w 0T, <4!d!d x 0T0___PPT10 ppD___PPT9&D $French sociologistnNSigmund Freud, by Max Halberstadt, 1914\?  %nef[Am>m+o Schools of Linguistics: some random thoughts28 `.b0b - 4SNYV'Yf[ -NVYYexvz-N_ Rmn4Z` ` ` U<:NUOAm>m  `  b;N _ ۏeQN*NxvzWe ,{N[‰ ,{N[``ideas) atQ0 [‰ZPxvz +RN NNb0RN*N\W0\v̑S 7hO(g Ng0N㉏[‰̀of `O N1YeT0 [``0Tf[t_atQ kS[~b/g'`vNatQ f gaIN0b/g/fKbk cؚƋ/fBl0`dV=1. :SRAm>mNR/e 4 b0b6b($1.1 Am>mYc`no, gNhNir, NhW\O, ;N‰p, xvzel, vLeN, gvQq_ T, __ gSSƉ҉0[*g_[W-NvY g0 Schools refer to trends of thought, with their representative figures, works, unique ideas, methods and influence on later development; a diachronic perspective. &``  5:SRAm>mNR/e , " b6b( Z 1.2 R/eYcW, xvzV, _N g~xQW\O, gq_TvNir, Y(uqQe‰p0SY*NAm>m[[ gǏ!.s0 (Branches refer to areas of study, with their classics, and influential figures; often a synchronic perspective.) X`7b$`sb$`t 71. :SRAm>mNR/e & b6b(  1.3 SSƉ҉TqQeƉ҉ Nw SN;uQN*NASW[, PN*NPWh. The diachronic and synchronic perspectives will form a cross, which like a coordinate. <{`zb$`JX R9(Distinction between Schools and Branches))b(` 1. :SRAm>mNR/e `  X1.2 f[vR/e: Branches: NQR:f[, |(MO)f[, ͋Glf[, b_` f[, Slf[, INf[, (uf[(?) Distinction from within: phonetics, phonology, lexicology, morphology, syntax, semantic, pragmatics (?) @b$b$ l 9 1. :SRAm>mNR/e2 `d`NYR: _tf[, >yOf[, { f[, ^y~f[, eSf[, N{| f[ 틙e^f[I{0 Distinction from without: psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, computation linguistics, neurolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, cultural linguistics, corpus linguistics, etc. $`` W>1. :SRAm>mNR/e `'YR{|: tf[, ^(uf[ Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.EEb6611. :SRAm>mNR/e `  D1.3 f[Am>m: O~l (600BC 18N~)traditional grammar; SSf[(19N~100t^) historical linguistics; sNf[_z("}}\, 20N~R) the beginning of modern linguistics; 4``` - P71. :SRAm>mNR/e ` 'k2mR;NIN(20N~20-50)European functionalism &Ofef[>m(1940 50)The London School; |~Rl(1960 s(W) Halliday s Systemic-functional grammar*`b$b);"1. :SRAm>mNR/e ` V~g;NINf[(1930 50) American structuralism Vlbcubl(1957 s) Chomsky s Generative Grammar wf[ today Cognitive linguisticsb$l $#H2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction %%b(& 2.1 b__>m l͑Rgvb__, ~g, bRTbRvR^, [ۏLb__cQTcQvb__S, Qv_t'`. The formal school: emphasize the formal, structural aspects of L, and distribution of elements; formalize the description of L; a psychological perspective.`p <#F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(2.2 R>m l͑RgvR, Rg N TB\!k NvbRvINR, :NRQ[b__, Qv>yO'`. The functional school: emphasize the functional nature of L; analyze the semantic function of elements on all levels; function determines form; a sociolinguistic perspective. 0``f F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(( "2.3 $N>mv:S+R b__;NIN:N/f_tsa;R;NIN/f>yOsa. The formal camp say language is a psychological fact; the functional camp say language is a social fact. J  b$b(8 k =%F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(2. b__;NINnfMsa/fN{|utW O;R;NIN/feg>yO[vnfMЏ(u. The formal camp say linguistic universals are men s biological inheritance; the functional camp say language similarities come from the common use of language. "`D >$F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(3.b__;NIN ?Qz`N_/fN{|vQ(WR;R;NINُ/f?QzNEvTRvSU\. The formal camp say that children are born with the ability to acquire language; the functional camp say that language learning comes from children s needs and development. 0``6?&F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(n4.b__;NINbS_brz|~xvzR;NINb>e(W>yOR-Nxvz0 The formalists regard language as an independent system; the formalists study language in the social context by referring to its social function."&`$12.[‰:SRAm>m `$  2.4 mb__l nN;TTf[ TNZTsQ|:NSTvR>mRl nNOTNyf[ 0b__>mb wbN|Rv~g ُN~gKNSN~bQV[vsQ|@bNMb glbcN NN:_vnfM'` blNNyKN:NSl wb/fvW@x@bNl/fNav VdklV~@wSP[ U\_0b0 @'2.[‰:SRAm>m ` Halliday: The basic opposition is not that between  structural and  generative grammars . The more fundamental opposition is between those that are primarily symtagmatic in orientation (by and large the formal grammars, with their roots in logic and philosophy)b S:2.[‰:SRAm>m ` and those that are primarily paradigmatic (by and large the functional ones, with their roots in rhetoric and ethnography). The former interpret a language a list of structures, among which, regular relationships may be established (b$b$A(2.[‰:SRAm>m ` (hence the introduction of transformation); they tend to emphasize universal features of language, to take grammar (which they call syntax) as the foundation of language (hence the grammar is arbitrary), and so to be organized around the sentence.b$C+2.[‰:SRAm>m ` R>mb wb/fN*NsQ|Q vQW,gsQ|PRN~gRN[sNN:_KNv N Tp bIN wZPvW@x@bNl/f6qv Vdkl/fV~@we,gb{ U\_v0$N*N5%KN gYNS _N gNvPt FON`no NN/f_ N Tv $N'Y5%_U\[݋_N_V0 0``" B)2.[‰:SRAm>m ` 2The functionalists interpret language as a network of relations, with structures coming in as the realization of these relationships; they tend to emphasize variables among languages, to take semantics as the foundation (hence the grammar is natural), and so to be organized around the text, or discourse. 33b$D*2.[‰:SRAm>m ` There are many cross-currents, with insights borrowed from one to the other; but they are ideologically fairly difficult and it is often difficulty to maintain a dialogue. 0b$`32.[‰:SRAm>m `  m `Halliday: In general the functional approach leans towards the applied rather than the pure, the rhetorical rather than the logical, the actual rather the ideal, the functional rather than the formal, the text rather than the sentence. `T;2.[‰:SRAm>m `The emphasis is on text analysis as a mode of action, a theory of language as a means of getting things done. xvzAm>fɲٺNm;Nel N w, R_~l, o~l, [ *O ؏/fN~TI{,_N g N T0$``n    F3. Am>/vN/vN/vNmN~ Schools`& 4.1 O~l: N ^J0RbN, QNbN0RvQN'k2m;l͑T͋Gl, Sl_\, NYef[l:N;N,Y:Nĉ['`l, N/fcQ'`l;q_T_'Y,e_; vQ!.s/fR NcQ]wQ(vQ/gN)Y؏(WO(u). Traditional Grammar: focus on phonetics and words; school grammar, prescriptive; influential; its terms still in use today.`   H/ 4. Am>mN~ Schools2```4.2 SSf[: k,SS,1|, SSĉ_;vQTgvelf[>m:NMQ20N~W{QNNMb;SSf[:NMQ20N~sNf[_zs^S0 Historical Linguistics: language comparison, family trees of languages; laws of sound change; Neogrammarians; paved the way for modern linguistics in the 20th century.``` ` ```` ` $`$(`( ,`,0`04`48`8<`<``` `  X?  Y@  ZA  " 4. Am>mN~ Schools`& 4.3 "}~\: sNf[;Vy;:SRNT,Sef[TqQef[, &{SvNa'`,@bcTc/fNav; /fN*N|~, N*NsQ||~((W|~-NvMOnQ[vQaIN); /f&{Sf[-NgxQWvNh.vQtq_Tm܏. Saussure: father of modern linguistics; language/speech; arbitrariness of language; synchronic/diachronic; signifier/signified; system of signs`    n["_KQwmY E. Durkheim$ o\&[OmO_ Sigmund Freud [D4. Am>mN~  | _VTf[[ Ernst Cassirerb"}~\N=O)Reuvcv^:  In the whole history of science there is perhaps no more fascinating a chapter than the rise of the new science of linguistics. In its importance it may very well be compared to the new science of Galileo, which in the 17th century, changed our whole concept of the physical world. H?Z#$$ $<$B  I0 4. Am>mN~ Schools`4.4 'k2mRf[>m: ^bm,T,gT9hf[>m;!.s:MOf[,]wOo`T_ OOo`;;NMOTMO;;NTċ;q_T'Y;R;NIN;Vy0 Functional schools in Europe: the Prague School ; the Copenhagen School: contribution to phonology; given/new information; theme/rheme; topic/comment; influential around 1920-40 0``  # 4. Am>mN~ Schools`& 4.5 V~g;NIN: ZSSe, (\,^\_, T)Re,jKQyrI{; (\-l\+YGP, Syv[;Tf[ Nv[;NINT  ~vg ; _tf[ NvL:N;NIN; American structuralism: F. Boaz, E. Sapir, Leonard Bloomfield, Z. Hariss, C. Hockett, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, empiricism in philosophy,  blank       !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCdEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abc&efghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{}k~slate , behaviorism in psychology.  `*  &V \EZSSe Boaz ]F(iO\ Sapir ^H L. Bloomfield ^\__IQyr Wundt `JNSu Watson aLeё~ Skinner J1 4. Am>mN~ Schools` %NmN~ Schools`& 4.5 VvTNYeW:ubl NvN:Wi}T;vQ‰, Tf[ Nv/Ut;NIN,_tf[ Nw;NIN; NuOeg,:_'YvRYr`;vh/fc:y,g(TN{|,g(; Chomsky s Generative grammar: a revolution; rationalism in philosophy; cognitive psychology; language is innate; initial state of mind; reveal nature of L to show nature of man.$ Z`   bM TNYeW Chomsky  cNAm>mN~ Schools5eċTNl Chomky s position is not only unique within linguistics at the present time, but is probably unprecedented in the whole history of the subject& Right or wrong, Chomsky s theory of grammar is undoubtedly the most dynamic and influential, and no linguist who wishes to keep abreast of current developments in his subject can afford to ignore Chomsky s theoretical pronouncements.  John LyonsZ&~dOChomsky4 It seems plain that language acquisition is based on the child s discovery of what from a formal point of view is a deep and abstract theory  a generative grammar of his language  many of the concepts and principles of which are only remotely related to experience by long and intricate chains of the unconscious quasi-inferential steps. A consideration of the character of the grammar that is acquired, theZePChomsky:degenerate quality and narrowly limited extent of the available data, the striking uniformity of the resulting grammar, and their independence of intelligence, motivation, and emotional state, over wide range of variation, leave little hope that much of the structure of the language can be learned by an organism initially uninformed as to its general character.(-- Chomsky 1965Aspects of the theory of syntax) @j 0{  fQ(  >f6q `N_WN?QzSsNb__҉^ w/fNymeY0bavt sSk틄vNyubl0ُylvYi_TSR_{~Ǐ+o0 YBgveaƋvNctǏ z MbN~ z zvޏ0 z_`N`?Qz`N_vl'`( Nc0Rv틙e(ϑKN]TVKN\ ?Qz`N_NzfR0R:g0`~kesQ| NNNvsXV }CS]N+R gT@b_lvtS`N0WvmN~ Schools`cQRBlb__S;Slrz,Sl:N8h_;‰[EQR, cQEQR, ʑEQR;vQq_Tm܏,NN3vNe;TNlt[Tf[,_tf[,{:g,b__SI{, g!.s. To formalize the description of L; independence of syntax; emphasis on explanatory power; contribution to philosophy, psychology, computer science; biology; bio-linguistics 0``  gRChomsky(@In  The Architecture of Language (2002:50) he wrote:  Lots of people reject the proposal that language is innate but nobody answers them. The reason why nobody answers is that their arguments would make no sense. There s no way to answer them. To say that  language is not innate is to say that there is no difference between my granddaughter, a rock and a rabbit. In other words, if you take a rock, a rabbit andhSChomskylmy granddaughter and put them in a community where people are talking English, they ll all learn English. If people believe that, then they believe that language is not innate. If they believe that there is a difference between my granddaughter, a rabbit and a rock, then they believe that language is innate. 77$6iTComsky(Chomsky (1988) & teaching should not be compared to filling a bottle with water but rather to helping a flower to grow in its own way. As any good teacher knows, the methods of instruction and range of material covered are of small important as compared with the success in arousing the natural curiosity of the students$Uwf[uv6q}YGY_ and stimulating their interest in pZo$0B ! jUChomsky(exploring on their ownoRNNSbc"}vtQ. What the students learn passively will be quickly forgotten. What the students discover for themselves when their natural curiosity and creative impulses are aroused not only will be remembered but will be the basis for further exploration and inquiry and perhaps significant intellectual contributions.TZT$$ 1%  4. Am>mN~ Schools`& F4.6&Ofef[>m: lg+YeW, [Oe, mN~ Schools`0/fY\|~~bv'Y|~.v~g1u>yOR@bQ[.v N'YR;?QzvN'YR. (WYef[ NTeSOf[ N g!.s. Language is a system of many sub-systems; three macro function of language (ideational, interpersonal, textual function); children s seven functions; contribution to language teaching and stylistics; popular in China.`Z   & ,5. N*Nef[>m A New School?`&  wf[: /f N/fN*NeAm>m? ؏/fN*NR/e? YN20N~70t^N, sQ_N_zfT'YvsQ|, /fw|~vNR;w|~/f1uaw, `a,tuS, baS,TctI{R~b. vh N/fcQL:N, /fʑ_wL:Nv_t~gT_tǏ z, c:ỳTQ(WvmB\ĉ_. Nir: TNYeW, Jackendoff, Langacker, Lakoff, Biewish, Hudson, Fillmore,TalorI{.`~    !  M4,5. N*Nef[>m A New School?``I am not if this is a new school or what. People say language and its use are based on our bodily experience and the way conceptualize it is called cognitive linguistics. It is a new approach to the study of language and mind. Topics include structure of characterization (prototype, metaphor, mental imagery), conceptual interface between syntax and..aa`N5,5. N*Nef[>m A New School?`{semantics, the experiential and pragmatic background of language-in-use, and the relationship between language and thought.||`' .5. N*NeAm>m A New School?`&  wf[vtSR: IN~gl gnfM'`;l Nrz; lT͋Gll gaIN:S+R(&{Sޏ~SO). xvzW: tuS, i_U, lU, YIN'`, ba'`, lSI{. f[y'`: NTf[, _tf[, N{|f[, {:gyf[,^y~f[I{ gsQ. g N Tf[>m: #W0WNT>m,/OKQ)Rf[>m`    O6.5. N*NeAm>m A New School?`NPrinciples: semantic structure has no universals; syntax is not independent; syntax and vocabulary form a continuum of symbols, not distinguished in meaning. Areas: characterization, metaphor, polysemy, iconicity, grammatization etc. Highly cross-disciplinary: philosophy, psychology, computer science, neurology, anthropology etc.OZO`7. SfN& d`Rmn, 0ef[Am>m 0 Yx>y, 19950 Liu Runqing &Feng Zongxin, Schools and Theories of Linguistics, Nanjing Normal University Press, 200 4 Xb$%`#`(`b0`PiQ87. SfN& d`8Liu0Running& Cui Gang, Readings in Linguistics: Ninety Years since Saussure . (Rmn ]R 0sNf[ TW 0. 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X`7b$`sb$`r 71. :SRAm>mNR/e & b6b(  1.3 SSƉ҉TqQeƉ҉ Nw SN;uQN*NASW[, PN*NPWh. The diachronic and synchronic perspectives will form a cross, which like a coordinate. <{`zb$`JX R9(Distinction between Schools and Branches))b(` 1. :SRAm>mNR/e `  X1.2 f[vR/e: Branches: NQR:f[, |(MO)f[, ͋Glf[, b_` f[, Slf[, INf[, (uf[(?) Distinction from within: phonetics, phonology, lexicology, morphology, syntax, semantic, pragmatics (?) @b$b$ l 9 1. :SRAm>mNR/e2 `d`NYR: _tf[, >yOf[, { f[, ^y~f[, eSf[, N{| f[ 틙e^f[I{0 Distinction from without: psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, computation linguistics, neurolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, cultural linguistics, corpus linguistics, etc. $`` W>1. :SRAm>mNR/e `'YR{|: tf[, ^(uf[ Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.EEb6611. :SRAm>mNR/e `  D1.3 f[Am>m: O~l (600BC 18N~)traditional grammar; SSf[(19N~100t^) historical linguistics; sNf[_z("}}\, 20N~R) the beginning of modern linguistics; 4``` - P71. :SRAm>mNR/e ` 'k2mR;NIN(20N~20-50)European functionalism &Ofef[>m(1940 50)The London School; |~Rl(1960 s(W) Halliday s Systemic-functional grammar*`b$b);"1. :SRAm>mNR/e ` V~g;NINf[(1930 50) American structuralism Vlbcubl(1957 s) Chomsky s Generative Grammar wf[ today Cognitive linguisticsb$l $#H2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction %%b(& 2.1 b__>m l͑Rgvb__, ~g, bRTbRvR^, [ۏLb__cQTcQvb__S, Qv_t'`. The formal school: emphasize the formal, structural aspects of L, and distribution of elements; formalize the description of L; a psychological perspective.`p <#F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(2.2 R>m l͑RgvR, Rg N TB\!k NvbRvINR, :NRQ[b__, Qv>yO'`. The functional school: emphasize the functional nature of L; analyze the semantic function of elements on all levels; function determines form; a sociolinguistic perspective. 0``f F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(( "2.3 $N>mv:S+R b__;NIN:N/f_tsa;R;NIN/f>yOsa. The formal camp say language is a psychological fact; the functional camp say language is a social fact. J  b$b(8 k =%F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(2. b__;NINnfMsa/fN{|utW O;R;NIN/feg>yO[vnfMЏ(u. The formal camp say linguistic universals are men s biological inheritance; the functional camp say language similarities come from the common use of language. "`D >$F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(3.b__;NIN ?Qz`N_/fN{|vQ(WR;R;NINُ/f?QzNEvTRvSU\. The formal camp say that children are born with the ability to acquire language; the functional camp say that language learning comes from children s needs and development. 0``6?&F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(n4.b__;NINbS_brz|~xvzR;NINb>e(W>yOR-Nxvz0 The formalists regard language as an independent system; the formalists study language in the social context by referring to its social function."&`$12.[‰:SRAm>m `$  2.4 mb__l nN;TTf[ TNZTsQ|:NSTvR>mRl nNOTNyf[ 0b__>mb wbN|Rv~g ُN~gKNSN~bQV[vsQ|@bNMb glbcN NN:_vnfM'` blNNyKN:NSl wb/fvW@x@bNl/fNav VdklV~@wSP[ U\_0b0 @'2.[‰:SRAm>m ` Halliday: The basic opposition is not that between  structural and  generative grammars . The more fundamental opposition is between those that are primarily symtagmatic in orientation (by and large the formal grammars, with their roots in logic and philosophy)b S:2.[‰:SRAm>m ` and those that are primarily paradigmatic (by and large the functional ones, with their roots in rhetoric and ethnography). The former interpret a language a list of structures, among which, regular relationships may be established (b$b$A(2.[‰:SRAm>m ` (hence the introduction of transformation); they tend to emphasize universal features of language, to take grammar (which they call syntax) as the foundation of language (hence the grammar is arbitrary), and so to be organized around the sentence.b$C+2.[‰:SRAm>m ` R>mb wb/fN*NsQ|Q vQW,gsQ|PRN~gRN[sNN:_KNv N Tp bIN wZPvW@x@bNl/f6qv Vdkl/fV~@we,gb{ U\_v0$N*N5%KN gYNS _N gNvPt FON`no NN/f_ N Tv $N'Y5%_U\[݋_N_V0 0``" B)2.[‰:SRAm>m ` 2The functionalists interpret language as a network of relations, with structures coming in as the realization of these relationships; they tend to emphasize variables among languages, to take semantics as the foundation (hence the grammar is natural), and so to be organized around the text, or discourse. 33b$D*2.[‰:SRAm>m ` There are many cross-currents, with insights borrowed from one to the other; but they are ideologically fairly difficult and it is often difficulty to maintain a dialogue. 0b$`32.[‰:SRAm>m `  m `Halliday: In general the functional approach leans towards the applied rather than the pure, the rhetorical rather than the logical, the actual rather the ideal, the functional rather than the formal, the text rather than the sentence. `T;2.[‰:SRAm>m `The emphasis is on text analysis as a mode of action, a theory of language as a means of getting things done. xvzAm>fɲٺNm;Nel N w, R_~l, o~l, [ *O ؏/fN~TI{,_N g N T0$``n    F3. Am>/vN/vN/vN  z! 4. Am>mN~ Schools`& 4.1 O~l: N ^J0RbN, QNbN0RvQN'k2m;l͑T͋Gl, Sl_\, NYef[l:N;N,Y:Nĉ['`l, N/fcQ'`l;q_T_'Y,e_; vQ!.s/fR NcQ]wQ(vQ/gN)Y؏(WO(u). Traditional Grammar: focus on phonetics and words; school grammar, prescriptive; influential; its terms still in use today.`   H/ 4. Am>mN~ Schools2```4.2 SSf[: k,SS,1|, SSĉ_;vQTgvelf[>m:NMQ20N~W{QNNMb;SSf[:NMQ20N~sNf[_zs^S0 Historical Linguistics: language comparison, family trees of languages; laws of sound change; Neogrammarians; paved the way for modern linguistics in the 20th century.``` ` ```` ` $`$(`( ,`,0`04`48`8<`<``` `  X?`  Y@`  ZA`  " 4. Am>mN~ Schools`& 4.3 "}~\: sNf[;Vy;:SRNT,Sef[TqQef[, &{SvNa'`,@bcTc/fNav; /fN*N|~, N*NsQ||~((W|~-NvMOnQ[vQaIN); /f&{Sf[-NgxQWvNh.vQtq_Tm܏. Saussure: father of modern linguistics; language/speech; arbitrariness of language; synchronic/diachronic; signifier/signified; system of signs`    n["_KQwmY E. Durkheim`$ o\&[OmO_ Sigmund Freud` [D4. Am>mN~ `  | _VTf[[ Ernst Cassirerb"}~\N=O)Reuvcv^:  In the whole history of science there is perhaps no more fascinating a chapter than the rise of the new science of linguistics. In its importance it may very well be compared to the new science of Galileo, which in the 17th century, changed our whole concept of the physical world. l?Z#`b$`b$j$;b$$B  I0 4. Am>mN~ Schools`4.4 'k2mRf[>m: ^bm,T,gT9hf[>m;!.s:MOf[,]wOo`T_ OOo`;;NMOTMO;;NTċ;q_T'Y;R;NIN;Vy0 Functional schools in Europe: the Prague School ; the Copenhagen School: contribution to phonology; given/new information; theme/rheme; topic/comment; influential around 1920-40 0``  # 4. Am>mN~ Schools`& 4.5 V~g;NIN: ZSSe, (\,^\_, T)Re,jKQyrI{; (\-l\+YGP, Syv[;Tf[ Nv[;NINT  ~vg ; _tf[ NvL:N;NIN; American structuralism: F. Boaz, E. Sapir, Leonard Bloomfield, Z. Hariss, C. Hockett, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, empiricism in philosophy,  blank slate , behaviorism in psychology.  `*  &V \EZSSe Boaz ` ]F(iO\ Sapir ` ^H L. Bloomfield` ^\_`_IQyr Wundt ` `JNSu Watson` aLeё~ Skinner` J1 4. Am>mN~ Schools` %NmN~ Schools`& 4.5 VvTNYeW:ubl NvN:Wi}T;vQ‰, Tf[ Nv/Ut;NIN,_tf[ Nw;NIN; NuOeg,:_'YvRYr`;vh/fc:y,g(TN{|,g(; Chomsky s Generative grammar: a revolution; rationalism in philosophy; cognitive psychology; language is innate; initial state of mind; reveal nature of L to show nature of man.$ Z`   bM TNYeW Chomsky`  cNAm>mN~ Schools `5eċTNl Chomky s position is not only unique within linguistics at the present time, but is probably unprecedented in the whole history of the subject& Right or wrong, Chomsky s theory of grammar is undoubtedly the most dynamic and influential, and no linguist who wishes to keep abreast of current developments in his subject can afford to ignore Chomsky s theoretical pronouncements.  John LyonsZ`dOChomsky`4 It seems plain that language acquisition is based on the child s discovery of what from a formal point of view is a deep and abstract theory  a generative grammar of his language  many of the concepts and principles of which are only remotely related to experience by long and intricate chains of the unconscious quasi-inferential steps. A consideration of the character of the grammar that is acquired, theZ`ePChomsky`:degenerate quality and narrowly limited extent of the available data, the striking uniformity of the resulting grammar, and their independence of intelligence, motivation, and emotional state, over wide range of variation, leave little hope that much of the structure of the language can be learned by an organism initially uninformed as to its general character.(-- Chomsky 1965Aspects of the theory of syntax) jj`bbbb0{  fQb(  >f6q `N_WN?QzSsNb__҉^ w/fNymeY0bavt sSk틄vNyubl0ُylvYi_TSR_{~Ǐ+o0 YBgveaƋvNctǏ z MbN~ z zvޏ0 z_`N`?Qz`N_vl'`( Nc0Rv틙e(ϑKN]TVKN\ ?Qz`N_NzfR0R:g0`~kesQ| NNNvsXV }CS]N+R gT@b_lvtS`N0WvmN~ Schools`cQRBlb__S;Slrz,Sl:N8h_;‰[EQR, cQEQR, ʑEQR;vQq_Tm܏,NN3vNe;TNlt[Tf[,_tf[,{:g,b__SI{, g!.s. To formalize the description of L; independence of syntax; emphasis on explanatory power; contribution to philosophy, psychology, computer science; biology; bio-linguistics 0``  gRChomskyb(@In  The Architecture of Language (2002:50) he wrote:  Lots of people reject the proposal that language is innate but nobody answers them. The reason why nobody answers is that their arguments would make no sense. There s no way to answer them. To say that  language is not innate is to say that there is no difference between my granddaughter, a rock and a rabbit. In other words, if you take a rock, a rabbit and`hSChomsky`lmy granddaughter and put them in a community where people are talking English, they ll all learn English. If people believe that, then they believe that language is not innate. If they believe that there is a difference between my granddaughter, a rabbit and a rock, then they believe that language is innate. 77b$iTComskyb(Chomsky (1988) & teaching should not be compared to filling a bottle with water but rather to helping a flower to grow in its own way. As any good teacher knows, the methods of instruction and range of material covered are of small important as compared with the success in arousing the natural curiosity of the students$Uwf[uv6q}YGY_ and stimulating their interest in 4pZnb$$`0B ! jUChomskyb(exploring on their ownoRNNSbc"}vtQ. What the students learn passively will be quickly forgotten. What the students discover for themselves when their natural curiosity and creative impulses are aroused not only will be remembered but will be the basis for further exploration and inquiry and perhaps significant intellectual contributions.TZTb$ 2%  4. Am>mN~ Schools`& F4.6&Ofef[>m: lg+YeW, [Oe, mN~ Schools`0/fY\|~~bv'Y|~.v~g1u>yOR@bQ[.v N'YR;?QzvN'YR. (WYef[ NTeSOf[ N g!.s. Language is a system of many sub-systems; three macro function of language (ideational, interpersonal, textual function); children s seven functions; contribution to language teaching and stylistics; popular in China.`Z   & ,5. N*Nef[>m A New School?`&  wf[: /f N/fN*NeAm>m? ؏/fN*NR/e? YN20N~70t^N, sQ_N_zfT'YvsQ|, /fw|~vNR;w|~/f1uaw, `a,tuS, baS,TctI{R~b. vh N/fcQL:N, /fʑ_wL:Nv_t~gT_tǏ z, c:ỳTQ(WvmB\ĉ_. Nir: TNYeW, Jackendoff, Langacker, Lakoff, Biewish, Hudson, Fillmore,TalorI{.`~    !  p] George Lakoff q^ George Lakoff?"We are neural beings," states Berkeley cognitive scientist George Lakoff. "Our brains take their input from the rest of our bodies. What our bodies are like and how they function in the world thus structures the very concepts we can use to think. We cannot think just anything - only what our embodied brains permit." .@1?r_@L. Talmy Ph.D.Berkerley Pioneering work In cognitive linguistics,A(`,*M4,5. N*Nef[>m A New School?``I am not if this is a new school or what. People say language and its use are based on our bodily experience and the way conceptualize it is called cognitive linguistics. It is a new approach to the study of language and mind. Topics include structure of characterization (prototype, metaphor, mental imagery), conceptual interface between syntax and..aa`N5,5. N*Nef[>m A New School?`{semantics, the experiential and pragmatic background of language-in-use, and the relationship between language and thought.||`' .5. N*NeAm>m A New School?`&  wf[vtSR: IN~gl gnfM'`;l Nrz; lT͋Gll gaIN:S+R(&{Sޏ~SO). xvzW: tuS, i_U, lU, YIN'`, ba'`, lSI{. f[y'`: NTf[, _tf[, N{|f[, {:gyf[,^y~f[I{ gsQ. g N Tf[>m: #W0WNT>m,/OKQ)Rf[>m`    O6.5. N*NeAm>m A New School?`NPrinciples: semantic structure has no universals; syntax is not independent; syntax and vocabulary form a continuum of symbols, not distinguished in meaning. Areas: characterization, metaphor, polysemy, iconicity, grammatization etc. Highly cross-disciplinary: philosophy, psychology, computer science, neurology, anthropology etc.OZO`s`Talmy s work(Cognitive semantics: S-NvƉ҉  There are some houses in the valley.  There is a house every now and then through the valley. la&qp  The bike is near the house .  The house is near the bike. RRf[  The ball rolled along the green.  The ball kept rolling along the green. La?L>c=LtaTalmy s workNNveRRThe beacon flashed. The beacon kept flashing. The beacon flashed 5 times in a row. The beacons kept flashing 5 times at a stretch. The beacons kept flashing 5 times at a stretch for 3 hours. $vdLakoff s workThey began to think of expressions like  It s been a long bumpy road ,  The marriage is on the rock ,  It s off the track ,  We re spinning our wheels ,  We re going in different directions ,  We are at a crossroads in the relationship . Then they generalized: In every case, the love relationship is a vehicle. In every case, the common life goals of the lovers are destinations they want to get to together. And in every case the difficulties in the relationship are thingsZ&1  weLakoff s work that keep them from reaching the destination: spinning wheels, dead-end street, going in different directions, and so on. The travelers mapped the lovers, vehicles the mapped relationships. This is a kind of mathematical mapping. The reasoning that you do about travel is mapped onto the reasoning you do about love.  LOVE IS A JOURNEY is exactly in the mapping .lZlkxfLakoff s work What is a concept in the brain? How do we get concept and how do we get complicated concepts like grasping, and how do we get abstract concept like grasping ideas or causation or something like that? So the idea is this: meaning is mental stimulation in the brain using your physical brain. Mental stimulation is imagining something. So if I give you a sentence like  John picked up the bottle , in order to understand that sentence, you have to at (ZygLakoff s work least be able to imagine someone picking up the bottle. If you cannot even imagine it, then you cannot understand the sentence. So understanding requires at least imagining something as if you were doing it, seeing it. that requires the same part of the brain as doing it or seeing it. How does that relate to the world? A concept is the minimal unit of linguistic meaning, the meaning of words are made up of concepts. There is a minimal unit of reasoning, which uses concepts. 8 "   zhLakoff s work The same part of the brain that moves your body also reasons about aspect. We call our theory simulation semantics because it says meaning is mental simulation using those parts of the brain that you use for the imagination of both seeing and acting. So concepts have an internal structure called neural parameters. And neural parameter is something as discovered in the neural system. For example, something like reaching for an object makes use of the parameter of direction. D^{i7. SfN& d`Rmn, 0ef[Am>m 0 Yx>y, 19950 Liu Runqing &Feng Zongxin, Schools and Theories of Linguistics, Nanjing Normal University Press, 200 4 bb$%`#`(`b0` '"Q87. SfN& d`8Liu0Running& Cui Gang, Readings in Linguistics: Ninety Years since Saussure . (Rmn ]R 0sNf[ TW 0. Yx>y 2009 Rmn ee 0ef[Ye z 0 Yx>y 2005 in English) `b$8b$Kb$b$`L "`b""`ON Thanks for your attention and cooperation !L,bBb6`,b0,  0 $(    s *m  CS"  `}  m  r  S m D ` m  V  C .ALakoff200/:H  0޽h ? h80___PPT10.F pL  0 (    s * m  CS"  `}  m    s *m  DS"  ` m  H  0޽h ? h80___PPT10.G p4!2  0  (  r  S NC `}  N r  S /ND ` N Z  C 2Alenportrait, YH  0޽h ? h80___PPT10.H @mgV  0 0 V(   r   S @C `}      s *z DS"  `  H   0޽h ? h80___PPT10.M  ;  0 @$(  $ $ s *, CS"  `}  r   $ s * DS"  ` r  H $ 0޽h ? h80___PPT10.N  d.  0 p0(  0 0 s *Tr  CS"  `  )  0 s *XXr  DS"  `i ) H 0 0޽h ? h80___PPT10.Q *  0 4(  4 4 s *Mr  CS"  `}  )  4 s *gr  DS"  ` ) H 4 0޽h ? h80___PPT10.Q 0$  0 8(  8 8 s * ) CS"  `  )  8 s *) DS"  `i ) H 8 0޽h ? h80___PPT10.Q 3O$  0 <$(  <r < S 4)C `  ) r < S ,)D< ) H < 0޽h ? h80___PPT10.Q ԄS  0 @(  @ @ s *  CS"  `    @ s *l DS"   H @ 0޽h ? h80___PPT10.Q G  0 D(  D D s *< CS"  `}    D s * DS"  `  H D 0޽h ? h80___PPT10.R r<pPbNv`nJ8{1Y(   $http://www.nndb.com/people/078/000030985/john-b-watson-1-sized.jpghttp://www.nndb.com/people/078/000030985/john-b-watson-1-sized.jpg :/wiki/File:Emile_DurkOhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/chap8.pdfThttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/references.pdfOhttp://linguistics.buffalo.eduheim.jpghhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emile_Durkheim.jpgB/wiki/File:Sigmund_Freud_LIFE.jpgphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sigmund_Freud_LIFE.jpg/ 00DArial3120TT,ܖ 0ܖ"D[SOal3120TT,ܖ 0ܖ DWingdings0TT,ܖ 0ܖ0DwiSO_GB23120TT,ܖ 0ܖ1@ .  @n?" dd@  @@`` DV !"+-H.G068;<>@BCDFGHIJKLMPQRSTVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdghiklmopqrstuvwxy{}~b$ ADseBM7 =R$k4}r`@n3(=R$ZKYյNZѮR$ZhQNe{\ bzR$[;M8/&0@ϋR$YTbLӰχOR$G "n\G TR$dw 2iC  )R$>h(N45R$ NwbjUߊWyARR$CdJa@c$%R$YjFUK(G}R$GD|N.Xlc6.U6R$$U>QDJFnR$TtT'rR$eV:ũxTXR$jm~@bbEr 0AA 3f@8ʚ;ʚ;g4BdBdc 0vppp@ <4dddd w 0T, <4!d!d x 0T0___PPT10 ppD___PPT9&D $French sociologistnNSigmund Freud, by Max Halberstadt, 1914\?  %nef[Am>m+o Schools of Linguistics: some random thoughts28 `.b0b - 4SNYV'Yf[ -NVYYexvz-N_ Rmn4Z` ` ` U<:NUOAm>m  `  b;N _ ۏeQN*NxvzWe ,{N[‰ ,{N[``ideas) atQ0 [‰ZPxvz +RN NNb0RN*N\W0\v̑S 7hO(g Ng0N㉏[‰̀of `O N1YeT0 [``0Tf[t_atQ kS[~b/g'`vNatQ f gaIN0b/g/fKbk cؚƋ/fBl0`dV=1. :SRAm>mNR/e 4 b0b6b($1.1 Am>mYc`no, gNhNir, NhW\O, ;N‰p, xvzel, vLeN, gvQq_ T, __ gSSƉ҉0[*g_[W-NvY g0 Schools refer to trends of thought, with their representative figures, works, unique ideas, methods and influence on later development; a diachronic perspective. &``  5:SRAm>mNR/e , " b6b( Z 1.2 R/eYcW, xvzV, _N g~xQW\O, gq_TvNir, Y(uqQe‰p0SY*NAm>m[[ gǏ!.s0 (Branches refer to areas of study, with their classics, and influential figures; often a synchronic perspective.) X`7b$`sb$`r 71. :SRAm>mNR/e & b6b(  1.3 SSƉ҉TqQeƉ҉ Nw SN;uQN*NASW[, PN*NPWh. The diachronic and synchronic perspectives will form a cross, which like a coordinate. <{`zb$`JX R9(Distinction between Schools and Branches))b(` 1. :SRAm>mNR/e `  X1.2 f[vR/e: Branches: NQR:f[, |(MO)f[, ͋Glf[, b_` f[, Slf[, INf[, (uf[(?) Distinction from within: phonetics, phonology, lexicology, morphology, syntax, semantic, pragmatics (?) @b$b$ l 9 1. :SRAm>mNR/e2 `d`NYR: _tf[, >yOf[, { f[, ^y~f[, eSf[, N{| f[ 틙e^f[I{0 Distinction from without: psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, computation linguistics, neurolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, cultural linguistics, corpus linguistics, etc. $`` W>1. :SRAm>mNR/e `'YR{|: tf[, ^(uf[ Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.EEb6611. :SRAm>mNR/e `  D1.3 f[Am>m: O~l (600BC 18N~)traditional grammar; SSf[(19N~100t^) historical linguistics; sNf[_z("}}\, 20N~R) the beginning of modern linguistics; 4``` - P71. :SRAm>mNR/e ` 'k2mR;NIN(20N~20-50)European functionalism &Ofef[>m(1940 50)The London School; |~Rl(1960 s(W) Halliday s Systemic-functional grammar*`b$b);"1. :SRAm>mNR/e ` V~g;NINf[(1930 50) American structuralism Vlbcubl(1957 s) Chomsky s Generative Grammar wf[ today Cognitive linguisticsb$l $#H2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction %%b(& 2.1 b__>m l͑Rgvb__, ~g, bRTbRvR^, [ۏLb__cQTcQvb__S, Qv_t'`. The formal school: emphasize the formal, structural aspects of L, and distribution of elements; formalize the description of L; a psychological perspective.`p <#F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(2.2 R>m l͑RgvR, Rg N TB\!k NvbRvINR, :NRQ[b__, Qv>yO'`. The functional school: emphasize the functional nature of L; analyze the semantic function of elements on all levels; function determines form; a sociolinguistic perspective. 0``f F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(( "2.3 $N>mv:S+R b__;NIN:N/f_tsa;R;NIN/f>yOsa. The formal camp say language is a psychological fact; the functional camp say language is a social fact. J  b$b(8 k =%F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(2. b__;NINnfMsa/fN{|utW O;R;NIN/feg>yO[vnfMЏ(u. The formal camp say linguistic universals are men s biological inheritance; the functional camp say language similarities come from the common use of language. "`D >$F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(3.b__;NIN ?Qz`N_/fN{|vQ(WR;R;NINُ/f?QzNEvTRvSU\. The formal camp say that children are born with the ability to acquire language; the functional camp say that language learning comes from children s needs and development. 0``6?&F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(n4.b__;NINbS_brz|~xvzR;NINb>e(W>yOR-Nxvz0 The formalists regard language as an independent system; the formalists study language in the social context by referring to its social function."&`$12.[‰:SRAm>m `$  2.4 mb__l nN;TTf[ TNZTsQ|:NSTvR>mRl nNOTNyf[ 0b__>mb wbN|Rv~g ُN~gKNSN~bQV[vsQ|@bNMb glbcN NN:_vnfM'` blNNyKN:NSl wb/fvW@x@bNl/fNav VdklV~@wSP[ U\_0b0 @'2.[‰:SRAm>m ` Halliday: The basic opposition is not that between  structural and  generative grammars . The more fundamental opposition is between those that are primarily symtagmatic in orientation (by and large the formal grammars, with their roots in logic and philosophy)b S:2.[‰:SRAm>m ` and those that are primarily paradigmatic (by and large the functional ones, with their roots in rhetoric and ethnography). The former interpret a language a list of structures, among which, regular relationships may be established (b$b$A(2.[‰:SRAm>m ` (hence the introduction of transformation); they tend to emphasize universal features of language, to take grammar (which they call syntax) as the foundation of language (hence the grammar is arbitrary), and so to be organized around the sentence.b$C+2.[‰:SRAm>m ` R>mb wb/fN*NsQ|Q vQW,gsQ|PRN~gRN[sNN:_KNv N Tp bIN wZPvW@x@bNl/f6qv Vdkl/fV~@we,gb{ U\_v0$N*N5%KN gYNS _N gNvPt FON`no NN/f_ N Tv $N'Y5%_U\[݋_N_V0 0``" B)2.[‰:SRAm>m ` 2The functionalists interpret language as a network of relations, with structures coming in as the realization of these relationships; they tend to emphasize variables among languages, to take semantics as the foundation (hence the grammar is natural), and so to be organized around the text, or discourse. 33b$D*2.[‰:SRAm>m ` There are many cross-currents, with insights borrowed from one to the other; but they are ideologically fairly difficult and it is often difficulty to maintain a dialogue. 0b$`32.[‰:SRAm>m `  m `Halliday: In general the functional approach leans towards the applied rather than the pure, the rhetorical rather than the logical, the actual rather the ideal, the functional rather than the formal, the text rather than the sentence. `T;2.[‰:SRAm>m `The emphasis is on text analysis as a mode of action, a theory of language as a means of getting things done. xvzAm>fɲٺNm;Nel N w, R_~l, o~l, [ *O ؏/fN~TI{,_N g N T0$``n    F3. Am>/vN/vN/vN  z! 4. Am>mN~ Schools`& 4.1 O~l: N ^J0RbN, QNbN0RvQN'k2m;l͑T͋Gl, Sl_\, NYef[l:N;N,Y:Nĉ['`l, N/fcQ'`l;q_T_'Y,e_; vQ!.s/fR NcQ]wQ(vQ/gN)Y؏(WO(u). Traditional Grammar: focus on phonetics and words; school grammar, prescriptive; influential; its terms still in use today.`   H/ 4. Am>mN~ Schools2```4.2 SSf[: k,SS,1|, SSĉ_;vQTgvelf[>m:NMQ20N~W{QNNMb;SSf[:NMQ20N~sNf[_zs^S0 Historical Linguistics: language comparison, family trees of languages; laws of sound change; Neogrammarians; paved the way for modern linguistics in the 20th century.``` ` ````      !"#$'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}~ ` $`$(`( ,`,0`04`48`8<`<``` `  X?`  Y@`  ZA`  " 4. Am>mN~ Schools`& 4.3 "}~\: sNf[;Vy;:SRNT,Sef[TqQef[, &{SvNa'`,@bcTc/fNav; /fN*N|~, N*NsQ||~((W|~-NvMOnQ[vQaIN); /f&{Sf[-NgxQWvNh.vQtq_Tm܏. Saussure: father of modern linguistics; language/speech; arbitrariness of language; synchronic/diachronic; signifier/signified; system of signs`    n["_KQwmY E. Durkheim`$ o\&[OmO_ Sigmund Freud` [D4. Am>mN~ `  | _VTf[[ Ernst Cassirerb"}~\N=O)Reuvcv^:  In the whole history of science there is perhaps no more fascinating a chapter than the rise of the new science of linguistics. In its importance it may very well be compared to the new science of Galileo, which in the 17th century, changed our whole concept of the physical world. l?Z#`b$`b$j$;b$$B  I0 4. Am>mN~ Schools`4.4 'k2mRf[>m: ^bm,T,gT9hf[>m;!.s:MOf[,]wOo`T_ OOo`;;NMOTMO;;NTċ;q_T'Y;R;NIN;Vy0 Functional schools in Europe: the Prague School ; the Copenhagen School: contribution to phonology; given/new information; theme/rheme; topic/comment; influential around 1920-40 0``  # 4. Am>mN~ Schools`& 4.5 V~g;NIN: ZSSe, (\,^\_, T)Re,jKQyrI{; (\-l\+YGP, Syv[;Tf[ Nv[;NINT  ~vg ; _tf[ NvL:N;NIN; American structuralism: F. Boaz, E. Sapir, Leonard Bloomfield, Z. Hariss, C. Hockett, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, empiricism in philosophy,  blank slate , behaviorism in psychology.  `*  &V \EZSSe Boaz ` ]F(iO\ Sapir ` ^H L. Bloomfield` ^\_`_IQyr Wundt ` `JNSu Watson` aLeё~ Skinner` J1 4. Am>mN~ Schools` %NmN~ Schools`& 4.5 VvTNYeW:ubl NvN:Wi}T;vQ‰, Tf[ Nv/Ut;NIN,_tf[ Nw;NIN; NuOeg,:_'YvRYr`;vh/fc:y,g(TN{|,g(; Chomsky s Generative grammar: a revolution; rationalism in philosophy; cognitive psychology; language is innate; initial state of mind; reveal nature of L to show nature of man.$ Z`   bM TNYeW Chomsky`  cNAm>mN~ Schools `5eċTNl Chomky s position is not only unique within linguistics at the present time, but is probably unprecedented in the whole history of the subject& Right or wrong, Chomsky s theory of grammar is undoubtedly the most dynamic and influential, and no linguist who wishes to keep abreast of current developments in his subject can afford to ignore Chomsky s theoretical pronouncements.  John LyonsZ`dOChomsky`4 It seems plain that language acquisition is based on the child s discovery of what from a formal point of view is a deep and abstract theory  a generative grammar of his language  many of the concepts and principles of which are only remotely related to experience by long and intricate chains of the unconscious quasi-inferential steps. A consideration of the character of the grammar that is acquired, theZ`ePChomsky`:degenerate quality and narrowly limited extent of the available data, the striking uniformity of the resulting grammar, and their independence of intelligence, motivation, and emotional state, over wide range of variation, leave little hope that much of the structure of the language can be learned by an organism initially uninformed as to its general character.(-- Chomsky 1965Aspects of the theory of syntax) jj`bbbb0{  fQb(  >f6q `N_WN?QzSsNb__҉^ w/fNymeY0bavt sSk틄vNyubl0ُylvYi_TSR_{~Ǐ+o0 YBgveaƋvNctǏ z MbN~ z zvޏ0 z_`N`?Qz`N_vl'`( Nc0Rv틙e(ϑKN]TVKN\ ?Qz`N_NzfR0R:g0`~kesQ| NNNvsXV }CS]N+R gT@b_lvtS`N0WvmN~ Schools`cQRBlb__S;Slrz,Sl:N8h_;‰[EQR, cQEQR, ʑEQR;vQq_Tm܏,NN3vNe;TNlt[Tf[,_tf[,{:g,b__SI{, g!.s. To formalize the description of L; independence of syntax; emphasis on explanatory power; contribution to philosophy, psychology, computer science; biology; bio-linguistics 0``  gRChomskyb(@In  The Architecture of Language (2002:50) he wrote:  Lots of people reject the proposal that language is innate but nobody answers them. The reason why nobody answers is that their arguments would make no sense. There s no way to answer them. To say that  language is not innate is to say that there is no difference between my granddaughter, a rock and a rabbit. In other words, if you take a rock, a rabbit and`hSChomsky`lmy granddaughter and put them in a community where people are talking English, they ll all learn English. If people believe that, then they believe that language is not innate. If they believe that there is a difference between my granddaughter, a rabbit and a rock, then they believe that language is innate. 77b$iTComskyb(Chomsky (1988) & teaching should not be compared to filling a bottle with water but rather to helping a flower to grow in its own way. As any good teacher knows, the methods of instruction and range of material covered are of small important as compared with the success in arousing the natural curiosity of the students$Uwf[uv6q}YGY_ and stimulating their interest in 4pZnb$$`0B ! jUChomskyb(exploring on their ownoRNNSbc"}vtQ. What the students learn passively will be quickly forgotten. What the students discover for themselves when their natural curiosity and creative impulses are aroused not only will be remembered but will be the basis for further exploration and inquiry and perhaps significant intellectual contributions.TZTb$ 2%  4. Am>mN~ Schools`& F4.6&Ofef[>m: lg+YeW, [Oe, mN~ Schools`0/fY\|~~bv'Y|~.v~g1u>yOR@bQ[.v N'YR;?QzvN'YR. (WYef[ NTeSOf[ N g!.s. Language is a system of many sub-systems; three macro function of language (ideational, interpersonal, textual function); children s seven functions; contribution to language teaching and stylistics; popular in China.`Z   & ,5. N*Nef[>m A New School?`&  wf[: /f N/fN*NeAm>m? ؏/fN*NR/e? YN20N~70t^N, sQ_N_zfT'YvsQ|, /fw|~vNR;w|~/f1uaw, `a,tuS, baS,TctI{R~b. vh N/fcQL:N, /fʑ_wL:Nv_t~gT_tǏ z, c:ỳTQ(WvmB\ĉ_. Nir: TNYeW, Talmy, Jackendoff, Langacker, Lakoff, Biewish, Hudson, Fillmore,TalorI{.`    !  p] George Lakoff q^ George Lakoff?"We are neural beings," states Berkeley cognitive scientist George Lakoff. "Our brains take their input from the rest of our bodies. What our bodies are like and how they function in the world thus structures the very concepts we can use to think. We cannot think just anything - only what our embodied brains permit." .@1?r_@L. Talmy Ph.D.Berkerley Pioneering work In cognitive linguistics,A(`,*M4,5. N*Nef[>m A New School?``I am not if this is a new school or what. People say language and its use are based on our bodily experience and the way conceptualize it is called cognitive linguistics. It is a new approach to the study of language and mind. Topics include structure of characterization (prototype, metaphor, mental imagery), conceptual interface between syntax and..aa`N5,5. N*Nef[>m A New School?`{semantics, the experiential and pragmatic background of language-in-use, and the relationship between language and thought.||`' .5. N*NeAm>m A New School?`&  wf[vtSR: IN~gl gnfM'`;l Nrz; lT͋Gll gaIN:S+R(&{Sޏ~SO). xvzW: tuS, i_U, lU, YIN'`, ba'`, lSI{. f[y'`: NTf[, _tf[, N{|f[, {:gyf[,^y~f[I{ gsQ. g N Tf[>m: #W0WNT>m,/OKQ)Rf[>m`    O6.5. N*NeAm>m A New School?`NPrinciples: semantic structure has no universals; syntax is not independent; syntax and vocabulary form a continuum of symbols, not distinguished in meaning. Areas: characterization, metaphor, polysemy, iconicity, grammatization etc. Highly cross-disciplinary: philosophy, psychology, computer science, neurology, anthropology etc.OZO`s`Talmy s work(Cognitive semantics: S-NvƉ҉  There are some houses in the valley.  There is a house every now and then through the valley. la&qp  The bike is near the house .  The house is near the bike. RRf[  The ball rolled along the green.  The ball kept rolling along the green. La?L>c=LtaTalmy s workNNveRRThe beacon flashed. The beacon kept flashing. The beacon flashed 5 times in a row. The beacons kept flashing 5 times at a stretch. The beacons kept flashing 5 times at a stretch for 3 hours. $vdLakoff s workThey began to think of expressions like  It s been a long bumpy road ,  The marriage is on the rock ,  It s off the track ,  We re spinning our wheels ,  We re going in different directions ,  We are at a crossroads in the relationship . Then they generalized: In every case, the love relationship is a vehicle. In every case, the common life goals of the lovers are destinations they want to get to together. And in every case the difficulties in the relationship are thingsZ&1  weLakoff s work that keep them from reaching the destination: spinning wheels, dead-end street, going in different directions, and so on. The travelers mapped the lovers, vehicles the mapped relationships. This is a kind of mathematical mapping. The reasoning that you do about travel is mapped onto the reasoning you do about love.  LOVE IS A JOURNEY is exactly in the mapping .lZlkxfLakoff s work What is a concept in the brain? How do we get concept and how do we get complicated concepts like grasping, and how do we get abstract concept like grasping ideas or causation or something like that? So the idea is this: meaning is mental stimulation in the brain using your physical brain. Mental stimulation is imagining something. So if I give you a sentence like  John picked up the bottle , in order to understand that sentence, you have to at (ZygLakoff s work( least be able to imagine someone picking up the bottle. If you cannot even imagine it, then you cannot understand the sentence. So understanding requires imagining something as if you were doing it, seeing it. that requires the same part of the brain as doing it or seeing it. How does that relate to the world? A concept is the minimal unit of linguistic meaning, the meaning of words are made up of concepts. There is a minimal unit of reasoning, which uses concepts.: "   zhLakoff s work The same part of the brain that moves your body also reasons about aspect. We call our theory simulation semantics because it says meaning is mental simulation using those parts of the brain that you use for the imagination of both seeing and acting. So concepts have an internal structure called neural parameters. And neural parameter is something as discovered in the neural system. For example, something like reaching for an object makes use of the parameter of direction. D^{i7. SfN& d`Rmn, 0ef[Am>m 0 Yx>y, 19950 Liu Runqing &Feng Zongxin, Schools and Theories of Linguistics, Nanjing Normal University Press, 200 4 bb$%`#`(`b0` '"Q87. SfN& d`8Liu0Running& Cui Gang, Readings in Linguistics: Ninety Years since Saussure . (Rmn ]R 0sNf[ TW 0. Yx>y 2009 Rmn ee 0ef[Ye z 0 Yx>y 2005 in English) `b$8b$Kb$b$`L "`b""`ON Thanks for your attention and cooperation !L,bBb6`,b0,  0 ( (     <Lm 3 C"<   `}  m    s *Mm 3 DS"  ` m  H  0޽h ? 3380___PPT10.D   0 0 (      s *@ CS"  `}      s *z DS"  `  H   0޽h ? h80___PPT10.M  ;V  0 <V(  <r < S 4)C `<  )  < s *,) DS" j< ) H < 0޽h ? h80___PPT10.Q ԄSr B&scyiQ{1(  x 9$http://www.nndb.com/people/078/000030985/john-b-watson-1-sized.jpghttp://www.nndb.com/people/078/000030985/john-b-watson-1-sized.jpg :/wiki/File:Emile_Durkheim.jpghhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emile_Durkheim.jpgB/wiki/File:Sigmund_Freud_LIFE.jpgphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sigmund_Freud_LIFE.jpgerrata.htmlhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/errata.html"Volume1/chap1.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/chap1.pdf"Volume1/chap2.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/chap2.pdf"Volume1/chap3.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/chap3.pdf&"Volume2/chap1.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume2/chap1.pdf'"Volume2/chap2.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume2/chap2.pdf("Volume2/chap3.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume2/chap3.pdf)"Volume2/chap4.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume2/chap4.pdf."Volume1/chap4.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/chap4.pdf/"Volume1/chap5.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/chap5.pdf0"Volume1/chap6.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/chap6.pdf1"Volume1/chap7.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/chap7.pdf2"Volume1/chap8.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/chap8.pdf3,Volume1/references.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/references.pdf4"Volume1/index.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/index.pdf5"Volume2/chap7.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume2/chap7.pdf6"Volume2/chap8.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume2/chap8.pdf7"Volume2/chap5.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume2/chap5.pdf8"Volume2/chap6.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume2/chap6.pdf9"Volume2/chap8.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume2/chap8.pdf/ 00DArial3120TT,ܖ 0ܖ"D[SOal3120TT,ܖ 0ܖ DWingdings0TT,ܖ 0ܖ0DwiSO_GB23120TT,ܖ 0ܖ1@ .  @n?" dd@  @@`` TZ !"+-H.G068;<>@BCDFGHIJKLMPQRSTVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdghiklmopqrstuvwxy{}~b$ ADseBM7 =R$k4}r`@n3(=R$ZKYյNZѮR$ZhQNe{\ bzR$[;M8/&0@ϋR$YTbLӰχOR$G "n\G TR$dw 2iC  )R$>h(N45R$ NwbjUߊWyARR$CdJa@c$%R$YjFUK(G}R$GD|N.Xlc6.U6R$$U>QDJFnR$TtT'rR$eV:ũxTXR$jm~@bbEr 0AA 3f@8ʚ;ʚ;g4BdBdc 0vppp@ <4dddd w 0T, <4!d!d x 0T0___PPT10 ppD___PPT9&D $French sociologistnNSigmund Freud, by Max Halberstadt, 1914\?  %nef[Am>m+o Schools of Linguistics: some random thoughts28 `.b0b - 4SNYV'Yf[ -NVYYexvz-N_ Rmn4Z` ` ` U<:NUOAm>m  `  b;N _ ۏeQN*NxvzWe ,{N[‰ ,{N[``ideas) atQ0 [‰ZPxvz +RN NNb0RN*N\W0\v̑S 7hO(g Ng0N㉏[‰̀of `O N1YeT0 [``0Tf[t_atQ kS[~b/g'`vNatQ f gaIN0b/g/fKbk cؚƋ/fBl0`dV=1. :SRAm>mNR/e 4 b0b6b($1.1 Am>mYc`no, gNhNir, NhW\O, ;N‰p, xvzel, vLeN, gvQq_ T, __ gSSƉ҉0[*g_[W-NvY g0 Schools refer to trends of thought, with their representative figures, works, unique ideas, methods and influence on later development; a diachronic perspective. &``  5:SRAm>mNR/e , " b6b( Z 1.2 R/eYcW, xvzV, _N g~xQW\O, gq_TvNir, Y(uqQe‰p0SY*NAm>m[[ gǏ!.s0 (Branches refer to areas of study, with their classics, and influential figures; often a synchronic perspective.) X`7b$`sb$`r 71. :SRAm>mNR/e & b6b(  1.3 SSƉ҉TqQeƉ҉ Nw SN;uQN*NASW[, PN*NPWh. The diachronic and synchronic perspectives will form a cross, which like a coordinate. <{`zb$`JX R9(Distinction between Schools and Branches))b(` 1. :SRAm>mNR/e `  X1.2 f[vR/e: Branches: NQR:f[, |(MO)f[, ͋Glf[, b_` f[, Slf[, INf[, (uf[(?) Distinction from within: phonetics, phonology, lexicology, morphology, syntax, semantic, pragmatics (?) @b$b$ l 9 1. :SRAm>mNR/e2 `d`NYR: _tf[, >yOf[, { f[, ^y~f[, eSf[, N{| f[ 틙e^f[I{0 Distinction from without: psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, computation linguistics, neurolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, cultural linguistics, corpus linguistics, etc. $`` W>1. :SRAm>mNR/e `'YR{|: tf[, ^(uf[ Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.EEb6611. :SRAm>mNR/e `  D1.3 f[Am>m: O~l (600BC 18N~)traditional grammar; SSf[(19N~100t^) historical linguistics; sNf[_z("}}\, 20N~R) the beginning of modern linguistics; 4``` - P71. :SRAm>mNR/e ` 'k2mR;NIN(20N~20-50)European functionalism &Ofef[>m(1940 50)The London School; |~Rl(1960 s(W) Halliday s Systemic-functional grammar*`b$b);"1. :SRAm>mNR/e ` V~g;NINf[(1930 50) American structuralism Vlbcubl(1957 s) Chomsky s Generative Grammar wf[ today Cognitive linguisticsb$l $#H2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction %%b(& 2.1 b__>m l͑Rgvb__, ~g, bRTbRvR^, [ۏLb__cQTcQvb__S, Qv_t'`. The formal school: emphasize the formal, structural aspects of L, and distribution of elements; formalize the description of L; a psychological perspective.`p <#F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(2.2 R>m l͑RgvR, Rg N TB\!k NvbRvINR, :NRQ[b__, Qv>yO'`. The functional school: emphasize the functional nature of L; analyze the semantic function of elements on all levels; function determines form; a sociolinguistic perspective. 0``f F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(( "2.3 $N>mv:S+R b__;NIN:N/f_tsa;R;NIN/f>yOsa. The formal camp say language is a psychological fact; the functional camp say language is a social fact. J  b$b(8 k =%F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(2. b__;NINnfMsa/fN{|utW O;R;NIN/feg>yO[vnfMЏ(u. The formal camp say linguistic universals are men s biological inheritance; the functional camp say language similarities come from the common use of language. "`D >$F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(3.b__;NIN ?Qz`N_/fN{|vQ(WR;R;NINُ/f?QzNEvTRvSU\. The formal camp say that children are born with the ability to acquire language; the functional camp say that language learning comes from children s needs and development. 0``6?&F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(n4.b__;NINbS_brz|~xvzR;NINb>e(W>yOR-Nxvz0 The formalists regard language as an independent system; the formalists study language in the social context by referring to its social function."&`$12.[‰:SRAm>m `$  2.4 mb__l nN;TTf[ TNZTsQ|:NSTvR>mRl nNOTNyf[ 0b__>mb wbN|Rv~g ُN~gKNSN~bQV[vsQ|@bNMb glbcN NN:_vnfM'` blNNyKN:NSl wb/fvW@x@bNl/fNav VdklV~@wSP[ U\_0b0 @'2.[‰:SRAm>m ` Halliday: The basic opposition is not that between  structural and  generative grammars . The more fundamental opposition is between those that are primarily symtagmatic in orientation (by and large the formal grammars, with their roots in logic and philosophy)b S:2.[‰:SRAm>m ` and those that are primarily paradigmatic (by and large the functional ones, with their roots in rhetoric and ethnography). The former interpret a language a list of structures, among which, regular relationships may be established (b$b$A(2.[‰:SRAm>m ` (hence the introduction of transformation); they tend to emphasize universal features of language, to take grammar (which they call syntax) as the foundation of language (hence the grammar is arbitrary), and so to be organized around the sentence.b$C+2.[‰:SRAm>m ` R>mb wb/fN*NsQ|Q vQW,gsQ|PRN~gRN[sNN:_KNv N Tp bIN wZPvW@x@bNl/f6qv Vdkl/fV~@we,gb{ U\_v0$N*N5%KN gYNS _N gNvPt FON`no NN/f_ N Tv $N'Y5%_U\[݋_N_V0 0``" B)2.[‰:SRAm>m ` 2The functionalists interpret language as a network of relations, with structures coming in as the realization of these relationships; they tend to emphasize variables among languages, to take semantics as the foundation (hence the grammar is natural), and so to be organized around the text, or discourse. 33b$D*2.[‰:SRAm>m ` There are many cross-currents, with insights borrowed from one to the other; but they are ideologically fairly difficult and it is often difficulty to maintain a dialogue. 0b$`32.[‰:SRAm>m `  m `Halliday: In general the functional approach leans towards the applied rather than the pure, the rhetorical rather than the logical, the actual rather the ideal, the functional rather than the formal, the text rather than the sentence. `T;2.[‰:SRAm>m `The emphasis is on text analysis as a mode of action, a theory of language as a means of getting things done. xvzAm>fɲٺNm;Nel N w, R_~l, o~l, [ *O ؏/fN~TI{,_N g N T0$``n    F3. Am>/vN/vN/vN  z! 4. Am>mN~ Schools`& 4.1 O~l: N ^J0RbN, QNbN0RvQN'k2m;l͑T͋Gl, Sl_\, NYef[l:N;N,Y:Nĉ['`l, N/fcQ'`l;q_T_'Y,e_; vQ!.s/fR NcQ]wQ(vQ/gN)Y؏(WO(u). Traditional Grammar: focus on phonetics and words; school grammar, prescriptive; influential; its terms still in use today.`   H/ 4. Am>mN~ Schools2```4.2 SSf[: k,SS,1|, SSĉ_;vQTgvelf[>m:NMQ20N~W{QNNMb;SSf[:NMQ20N~sNf[_zs^S0 Historical Linguistics: language comparison, family trees of languages; laws of sound change; Neogrammarians; paved the way for modern linguistics in the 20th century.``` ` ```` ` $`$(`( ,`,0`04`48`8<`<``` `  X?`  Y@`  ZA`  " 4. Am>mN~ Schools`& 4.3 "}~\: sNf[;Vy;:SRNT,Sef[TqQef[, &{SvNa'`,@bcTc/fNav; /fN*N|~, N*NsQ||~((W|~-NvMOnQ[vQaIN); /f&{Sf[-NgxQWvNh.vQtq_Tm܏. Saussure: father of modern linguistics; language/speech; arbitrariness of language; synchronic/diachronic; signifier/signified; system of signs`    n["_KQwmY E. Durkheim`$ o\&[OmO_ Sigmund Freud` [D4. Am>mN~ `  | _VTf[[ Ernst Cassirerb"}~\N=O)Reuvcv^:  In the whole history of science there is perhaps no more fascinating a chapter than the rise of the new science of linguistics. In its importance it may very well be compared to the new science of Galileo, which in the 17th century, changed our whole concept of the physical world. l?Z#`b$`b$j$;b$$B  I0 4. Am>mN~ Schools`4.4 'k2mRf[>m: ^bm,T,gT9hf[>m;!.s:MOf[,]wOo`T_ OOo`;;NMOTMO;;NTċ;q_T'Y;R;NIN;Vy0 Functional schools in Europe: the Prague School ; the Copenhagen School: contribution to phonology; given/new information; theme/rheme; topic/comment; influential around 1920-40 0``  # 4. Am>mN~ Schools`& 4.5 V~g;NIN: ZSSe, (\,^\_, T)Re,jKQyrI{; (\-l\+YGP, Syv[;Tf[ Nv[;NINT  ~vg ; _tf[ NvL:N;NIN; American structuralism: F. Boaz, E. Sapir, Leonard Bloomfield, Z. Hariss, C. Hockett, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, empiricism in philosophy,  blank slate , behaviorism in psychology.  `*  &V \EZSSe Boaz ` ]F(iO\ Sapir ` ^H L. Bloomfield` ^\_`_IQyr Wundt ` `JNSu Watson` aLeё~ Skinner` J1 4. Am>mN~ Schools` %NmN~ Schools`& 4.5 VvTNYeW:ubl NvN:Wi}T;vQ‰, Tf[ Nv/Ut;NIN,_tf[ Nw;NIN; NuOeg,:_'YvRYr`;vh/fc:y,g(TN{|,g(; Chomsky s Generative grammar: a revolution; rationalism in philosophy; cognitive psychology; language is innate; initial state of mind; reveal nature of L to show nature of man.$ Z`   bM TNYeW Chomsky`  cNAm>mN~ Schools `5eċTNl Chomky s position is not only unique within linguistics at the present time, but is probably unprecedented in the whole history of the subject& Right or wrong, Chomsky s theory of grammar is undoubtedly the most dynamic and influential, and no linguist who wishes to keep abreast of current developments in his subject can afford to ignore Chomsky s theoretical pronouncements.  John LyonsZ`dOChomsky`4 It seems plain that language acquisition is based on the child s discovery of what from a formal point of view is a deep and abstract theory  a generative grammar of his language  many of the concepts and principles of which are only remotely related to experience by long and intricate chains of the unconscious quasi-inferential steps. A consideration of the character of the grammar that is acquired, theZ`ePChomsky`:degenerate quality and narrowly limited extent of the available data, the striking uniformity of the resulting grammar, and their independence of intelligence, motivation, and emotional state, over wide range of variation, leave little hope that much of the structure of the language can be learned by an organism initially uninformed as to its general character.(-- Chomsky 1965Aspects of the theory of syntax) jj`bbbb0{  fQb(  >f6q `N_WN?QzSsNb__҉^ w/fNymeY0bavt sSk틄vNyubl0ُylvYi_TSR_{~Ǐ+o0 YBgveaƋvNctǏ z MbN~ z zvޏ0 z_`N`?Qz`N_vl'`( Nc0Rv틙e(ϑKN]TVKN\ ?Qz`N_NzfR0R:g0`~kesQ| NNNvsXV }CS]N+R gT@b_lvtS`N0WvmN~ Schools`cQRBlb__S;Slrz,Sl:N8h_;‰[EQR, cQEQR, ʑEQR;vQq_Tm܏,NN3vNe;TNlt[Tf[,_tf[,{:g,b__SI{, g!.s. To formalize the description of L; independence of syntax; emphasis on explanatory power; contribution to philosophy, psychology, computer science; biology; bio-linguistics 0``  gRChomskyb(@In  The Architecture of Language (2002:50) he wrote:  Lots of people reject the proposal that language is innate but nobody answers them. The reason why nobody answers is that their arguments would make no sense. There s no way to answer them. To say that  language is not innate is to say that there is no difference between my granddaughter, a rock and a rabbit. In other words, if you take a rock, a rabbit and`hSChomsky`lmy granddaughter and put them in a community where people are talking English, they ll all learn English. If people believe that, then they believe that language is not innate. If they believe that there is a difference between my granddaughter, a rabbit and a rock, then they believe that language is innate. 77b$iTComskyb(Chomsky (1988) & teaching should not be compared to filling a bottle with water but rather to helping a flower to grow in its own way. As any good teacher knows, the methods of instruction and range of material covered are of small important as compared with the success in arousing the natural curiosity of the students$Uwf[uv6q}YGY_ and stimulating their interest in 4pZnb$$`0B ! jUChomskyb(exploring on their ownoRNNSbc"}vtQ. What the students learn passively will be quickly forgotten. What the students discover for themselves when their natural curiosity and creative impulses are aroused not only will be remembered but will be the basis for further exploration and inquiry and perhaps significant intellectual contributions.TZTb$ 2%  4. Am>mN~ Schools`& F4.6&Ofef[>m: lg+YeW, [Oe, mN~ Schools`0/fY\|~~bv'Y|~.v~g1u>yOR@bQ[.v N'YR;?QzvN'YR. (WYef[ NTeSOf[ N g!.s. Language is a system of many sub-systems; three macro function of language (ideational, interpersonal, textual function); children s seven functions; contribution to language teaching and stylistics; popular in China.`Z   & ,5. N*Nef[>m A New School?`&  wf[: /f N/fN*NeAm>m? ؏/fN*NR/e? YN20N~70t^N, sQ_N_zfT'YvsQ|, /fw|~vNR;w|~/f1uaw, `a,tuS, baS,TctI{R~b. vh N/fcQL:N, /fʑ_wL:Nv_t~gT_tǏ z, c:ỳTQ(WvmB\ĉ_. Nir: TNYeW, Talmy, Jackendoff, Langacker, Lakoff, Biewish, Hudson, Fillmore,TalorI{.`    !  p] George Lakoff q^ George Lakoff?"We are neural beings," states Berkeley cognitive scientist George Lakoff. "Our brains take their input from the rest of our bodies. What our bodies are like and how they function in the world thus structures the very concepts we can use to think. We cannot think just anything - only what our embodied brains permit." .@1?r_@L. Talmy Ph.D.Berkerley Pioneering work In cognitive linguistics,A(`,*M4,5. N*Nef[>m A New School?``I am not if this is a new school or what. People say language and its use are based on our bodily experience and the way conceptualize it is called cognitive linguistics. It is a new approach to the study of language and mind. Topics include structure of characterization (prototype, metaphor, mental imagery), conceptual interface between syntax and..aa`N5,5. N*Nef[>m A New School?`{semantics, the experiential and pragmatic background of language-in-use, and the relationship between language and thought.||`' .5. N*NeAm>m A New School?`&  wf[vtSR: IN~gl gnfM'`;l Nrz; lT͋Gll gaIN:S+R(&{Sޏ~SO). xvzW: tuS, i_U, lU, YIN'`, ba'`, lSI{. f[y'`: NTf[, _tf[, N{|f[, {:gyf[,^y~f[I{ gsQ. g N Tf[>m: #W0WNT>m,/OKQ)Rf[>m`    O6.5. N*NeAm>m A New School?`NPrinciples: semantic structure has no universals; syntax is not independent; syntax and vocabulary form a continuum of symbols, not distinguished in meaning. Areas: characterization, metaphor, polysemy, iconicity, grammatization etc. Highly cross-disciplinary: philosophy, psychology, computer science, neurology, anthropology etc.OZO`s`Talmy s work(Cognitive semantics: S-NvƉ҉  There are some houses in the valley.  There is a house every now and then through the valley. la&qp  The bike is near the house .  The house is near the bike. RRf[  The ball rolled along the green.  The ball kept rolling along the green. La?L>c=LtaTalmy s workNNveRRThe beacon flashed. The beacon kept flashing. The beacon flashed 5 times in a row. The beacons kept flashing 5 times at a stretch. The beacons kept flashing 5 times at a stretch for 3 hours. $|jTalmy s work@Toward a Cognitive Semantics Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 2000 Volume I Concept Structuring Systems Part 1: Foundations of Conceptual Structuring in Language Ch. 1 The Relation of Grammar to Cognition Part 2: Configurational Structure Ch. 2 Fictive Motion in Language and "Ception" Ch. 3 How Language Structures Space ,AIl:e*  &# 0:; 0 0 0?}lTalmy s workPart 3: Attention Ch. 4 The Windowing of Attention in Language Ch. 5 Figure and Ground in Language Ch. 6 Structures that Relate Events Part 4: Force and Causation Ch. 7 Force Dynamics in Language and Cognition Ch. 8 The Semantics of Causation References IndexZz,##.  . 0>/ 0?b0 0c1 02 03 04 0~kTalmy s work'Volume II Typology and Process in Concept Structuring Part 1: Typological Patterns in the Representation of Event Structure Ch. 1 Lexicalization Patterns Ch. 2 Surveying Lexicalization Patterns Ch. 3 A Typology of Event Integration Ch. 4 Borrowing Semantic Space: Diachronic Hybridization (<R'%8& 0' 0( 0) 0&mTalmy s work Part 3: Other Cognitive Systems Ch. 7 The Cognitive Culture System Ch. 8 A Cognitive Framework for Narrative Structure Part 2: Semantic Interaction Ch. 5 Semantic Conflict and Resolution Ch. 6 Communicative Goals and Means: Their Cognitive Interaction References IndexZd "4&@5 0 B6 0Cw7 08 09 0 vdLakoff s workThey began to think of expressions like  It s been a long bumpy road ,  The marriage is on the rock ,  It s off the track ,  We re spinning our wheels ,  We re going in different directions ,  We are at a crossroads in the relationship . Then they generalized: In every case, the love relationship is a vehicle. In every case, the common life goals of the lovers are destinations they want to get to together. And in every case the difficulties in the relationship are thingsZ&1  weLakoff s work that keep them from reaching the destination: spinning wheels, dead-end street, going in different directions, and so on. The travelers mapped the lovers, vehicles the mapped relationships. This is a kind of mathematical mapping. The reasoning that you do about travel is mapped onto the reasoning you do about love.  LOVE IS A JOURNEY is exactly in the mapping .lZlkxfLakoff s work What is a concept in the brain? How do we get concept and how do we get complicated concepts like grasping, and how do we get abstract concept like grasping ideas or causation or something like that? So the idea is this: meaning is mental stimulation in the brain using your physical brain. Mental stimulation is imagining something. So if I give you a sentence like  John picked up the bottle , in order to understand that sentence, you have to at (ZygLakoff s work( least be able to imagine someone picking up the bottle. If you cannot even imagine it, then you cannot understand the sentence. So understanding requires imagining something as if you were doing it, seeing it. that requires the same part of the brain as doing it or seeing it. How does that relate to the world? A concept is the minimal unit of linguistic meaning, the meaning of words are made up of concepts. There is a minimal unit of reasoning, which uses concepts.: "   zhLakoff s work The same part of the brain that moves your body also reasons about aspect. We call our theory simulation semantics because it says meaning is mental simulation using those parts of the brain that you use for the imagination of both seeing and acting. So concepts have an internal structure called neural parameters. And neural parameter is something as discovered in the neural system. For example, something like reaching for an object makes use of the parameter of direction. D^{i7. SfN& d`Rmn, 0ef[Am>m 0 Yx>y, 19950 Liu Runqing &Feng Zongxin, Schools and Theories of Linguistics, Nanjing Normal University Press, 200 4 bb$%`#`(`b0` '"Q87. SfN& d`8Liu0Running& Cui Gang, Readings in Linguistics: Ninety Years since Saussure . (Rmn ]R 0sNf[ TW 0. 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A More Macro Distinction *2. A More Macro Distinction*2. A More Macro Distinction*2. A More Macro Distinction*2. A More Macro Distinction*2. A More Macro Distinction2.2.2.2.2.2.2.2.2.2.,3. ֧ļֵ Significance of the Two,3. ֧ļֵ Significance of the Two,3. ֧ļֵ Significance of the Two5. ɽ ͳ﷨5. ɽܣʷѧ 5. ɽܣʷѧ5. ɽܣʷѧ õƬ 36 6. ɽܣִѧ¿˺ķ E. Durkheim Sigmund Freud6. ɽܣִѧ7. ɽܣڹѧ8. ɽ ṹ˹ Boaz SapirL. Bloomfield Wundt Watson˹ Skinner8. ɽܣṹ9. ɽܣķ˹:﷨ķ˹ Chomskyɽܣķ˹:﷨ChomskyChomsky õƬ 559. ɽܣķ˹:﷨Chomsky:츳Chomsky츳Chomsky:ԽѧChomskyԽѧ10. ɽܣϵͳѧ10. ɽܣϵͳѧMalinovski ŵ˹ õƬ 64M.A.K. Halliday10. ɽܣϵͳѧ ϵͳ ϵͳ Թ Թ Թ Թ Թ11. һѧ ֪ѧƷ George LakoffƷ George Lakoff õƬ 7711. һѧ ֪ѧ11. һѧɣ֪ѧ11. һɣ֪ѧ11. һɣ֪ѧ Talmys work Talmys work Talmys work Talmys work Talmys work Talmys workƷ Lakoffs workƷ Lakoffs workƷ Lakoffs workƷ Lakoffs workƷ Lakoffs work 11. һɣ֪ѧ 12. ο 12. ο  õʾĸģ õƬ_ 8@ _PID_HLINKSAChttp://www.nndb.com/people/078/000030985/john-b-watson-1-sized.jpg5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emile_Durkheim.jpg9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sigmund_Freud_LIFE.jpgIhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/errata.htmlOhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/chap1.pdfOhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/chap2.pdfOhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/chap3.pdfOhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume2/chap1.pdfOhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume2/chap2.pdfOhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume2/chap3.pdfOhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume2/chap4.pdfOhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/chap4.pdfOhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/chap5.pdfOhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/chap6.pdfOhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/chap7.pdf/"Volume1/chap5.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/chap5.pdf0"Volume1/chap6.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/chap6.pdf1"Volume1/chap7.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/chap7.pdf2"Volume1/chap8.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/chap8.pdf3,Volume1/references.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/references.pdf4"Volume1/index.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume1/index.pdf5"Volume2/chap7.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume2/chap7.pdf6"Volume2/chap8.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume2/chap8.pdf7"Volume2/chap5.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume2/chap5.pdf8"Volume2/chap6.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume2/chap6.pdf9"Volume2/chap8.pdfhttp://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/talmy/talmyweb/Volume2/chap8.pdf/ 00DArial3120TT,ܖ 0ܖ"D[SOal3120TT,ܖ 0ܖ DWingdings0TT,ܖ 0ܖ0DwiSO_GB23120TT,ܖ 0ܖ1@ .  @n?" dd@  @@`` LDl_ !"+-H.G068;<>@BCDFGHIJKLMPQRSTVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdghiklmopqrstuvwxy{}~b$ ADseBM7 =R$k4}r`@n3(=R$ZKYյNZѮR$ZhQNe{\ bzR$[;M8/&0@ϋR$YTbLӰχOR$G "n\G TR$dw 2iC  )R$>h(N45R$ NwbjUߊWyARR$CdJa@c$%R$YjFUK(G}R$GD|N.Xlc6.U6R$$U>QDJFnR$TtT'rR$eV:ũxTXR$jm~@bbEr 0AA 3f@8ʚ;ʚ;g4BdBdc 0vppp@ <4dddd w 0T, <4!d!d x 0T0___PPT10 ppx___PPT9ZD $French sociologistnNSigmund Freud, by Max Halberstadt, 1914p?  %nef[Am>m+o Schools of Linguistics: some random thoughts28 `.b0b - 4SNYV'Yf[ -NVYYexvz-N_ Rmn4Z` ` ` U<:NUOAm>m  `  b;N _ ۏeQN*NxvzWe ,{N[‰ ,{N[``ideas) atQ0 [‰ZPxvz +RN NNb0RN*N\W0\v̑S 7hO(g Ng0N㉏[‰̀of `O N1YeT0 [``0Tf[t_atQ kS[~b/g'`vNatQ f gaIN0b/g/fKbk cؚƋ/fBl0`dV=1. :SRAm>mNR/e 4 b0b6b($1.1 Am>mYc`no, gNhNir, NhW\O, ;N‰p, xvzel, vLeN, gvQq_ T, __ gSSƉ҉0[*g_[W-NvY g0 Schools refer to trends of thought, with their representative figures, works, unique ideas, methods and influence on later development; a diachronic perspective. &``  5:SRAm>mNR/e , " b6b( Z 1.2 R/eYcW, xvzV, _N g~xQW\O, gq_TvNir, Y(uqQe‰p0SY*NAm>m[[ gǏ!.s0 (Branches refer to areas of study, with their classics, and influential figures; often a synchronic perspective.) X`7b$`sb$`r 71. :SRAm>mNR/e & b6b(  1.3 SSƉ҉TqQeƉ҉ Nw SN;uQN*NASW[, PN*NPWh. The diachronic and synchronic perspectives will form a cross, which like a coordinate. <{`zb$`JX R9(Distinction between Schools and Branches))b(` 1. :SRAm>mNR/e `  X1.2 f[vR/e: Branches: NQR:f[, |(MO)f[, ͋Glf[, b_` f[, Slf[, INf[, (uf[(?) Distinction from within: phonetics, phonology, lexicology, morphology, syntax, semantic, pragmatics (?) @b$b$ l 9 1. :SRAm>mNR/e2 `d`NYR: _tf[, >yOf[, { f[, ^y~f[, eSf[, N{| f[ 틙e^f[I{0 Distinction from without: psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, computation linguistics, neurolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, cultural linguistics, corpus linguistics, etc. $`` W>1. :SRAm>mNR/e `'YR{|: tf[, ^(uf[ Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.EEb6611. :SRAm>mNR/e `  D1.3 f[Am>m: O~l (600BC 18N~)traditional grammar; SSf[(19N~100t^) historical linguistics; sNf[_z("}}\, 20N~R) the beginning of modern linguistics; 4``` - P71. :SRAm>mNR/e ` 'k2mR;NIN(20N~20-50)European functionalism &Ofef[>m(1940 50)The London School; |~Rl(1960 s(W) Halliday s Systemic-functional grammar*`b$b);"1. :SRAm>mNR/e ` V~g;NINf[(1930 50) American structuralism Vlbcubl(1957 s) Chomsky s Generative Grammar wf[ today Cognitive linguisticsb$l $#H2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction %%b(& 2.1 b__>m l͑Rgvb__, ~g, bRTbRvR^, [ۏLb__cQTcQvb__S, Qv_t'`. The formal school: emphasize the formal, structural aspects of L, and distribution of elements; formalize the description of L; a psychological perspective.`p <#F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(2.2 R>m l͑RgvR, Rg N TB\!k NvbRvINR, :NRQ[b__, Qv>yO'`. The functional school: emphasize the functional nature of L; analyze the semantic function of elements on all levels; function determines form; a sociolinguistic perspective. 0``f F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(( "2.3 $N>mv:S+R b__;NIN:N/f_tsa;R;NIN/f>yOsa. The formal camp say language is a psychological fact; the functional camp say language is a social fact. J  b$b(8 k =%F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(2. b__;NINnfMsa/fN{|utW O;R;NIN/feg>yO[vnfMЏ(u. The formal camp say linguistic universals are men s biological inheritance; the functional camp say language similarities come from the common use of language. "`D >$F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(3.b__;NIN ?Qz`N_/fN{|vQ(WR;R;NINُ/f?QzNEvTRvSU\. The formal camp say that children are born with the ability to acquire language; the functional camp say that language learning comes from children s needs and development. 0``6?&F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(n4.b__;NINbS_brz|~xvzR;NINb>e(W>yOR-Nxvz0 The formalists regard language as an independent system; the formalists study language in the social context by referring to its social function."&`$12.[‰:SRAm>m `$  2.4 mb__l nN;TTf[ TNZTsQ|:NSTvR>mRl nNOTNyf[ 0b__>mb wbN|Rv~g ُN~gKNSN~bQV[vsQ|@bNMb glbcN NN:_vnfM'` blNNyKN:NSl wb/fvW@x@bNl/fNav VdklV~@wSP[ U\_0b0 @'2.[‰:SRAm>m ` Halliday: The basic opposition is not that between  structural and  generative grammars . The more fundamental opposition is between those that are primarily symtagmatic in orientation (by and large the formal grammars, with their roots in logic and philosophy)b S:2.[‰:SRAm>m ` and those that are primarily paradigmatic (by and large the functional ones, with their roots in rhetoric and ethnography). The former interpret a language a list of structures, among which, regular relationships may be established (b$b$A(2.[‰:SRAm>m ` (hence the introduction of transformation); they tend to emphasize universal features of language, to take grammar (which they call syntax) as the foundation of language (hence the grammar is arbitrary), and so to be organized around the sentence.b$C+2.[‰:SRAm>m ` R>mb wb/fN*NsQ|Q vQW,gsQ|PRN~gRN[sNN:_KNv N Tp bIN wZPvW@x@bNl/f6qv Vdkl/fV~@we,gb{ U\_v0$N*N5%KN gYNS _N gNvPt FON`no NN/f_ N Tv $N'Y5%_U\[݋_N_V0 0``" B)2.[‰:SRAm>m ` 2The functionalists interpret language as a network of relations, with structures coming in as the realization of these relationships; they tend to emphasize variables among languages, to take semantics as the foundation (hence the grammar is natural), and so to be organized around the text, or discourse. 33b$D*2.[‰:SRAm>m ` There are many cross-currents, with insights borrowed from one to the other; but they are ideologically fairly difficult and it is often difficulty to maintain a dialogue. 0b$`32.[‰:SRAm>m `  m `Halliday: In general the functional approach leans towards the applied rather than the pure, the rhetorical rather than the logical, the actual rather the ideal, the functional rather than the formal, the text rather than the sentence. `T;2.[‰:SRAm>m `The emphasis is on text analysis as a mode of action, a theory of language as a means of getting things done. xvzAm>fɲٺNm;Nel N w, R_~l, o~l, [ *O ؏/fN~TI{,_N g N T0$``n    F3. Am>/vN/vN/vN  z!4. Am>mN~  O~l`  4.1 O~l: N ^J0RbN, QNbN0RvQN'k2m;l͑T͋Gl, Sl_\, NYef[l:N;N,Y:Nĉ['`l, N/fcQ'`l;q_T_'Y,e_; vQ!.s/fR NcQ]wQ(vQ/gN)Y؏(WO(u). Traditional Grammar: focus on phonetics and words; school grammar, prescriptive; influential; its terms still in use today.`   H/4. Am>mN~SSf[       !"#$%&'w)*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRUVWXYZ[\]^_`abmnopqrsuvwxyz{|}~2` `` 4.2 SSf[: k,SS,1|, SSĉ_;vQTgvelf[>m:NMQ20N~W{QNNMb;SSf[:NMQ20N~sNf[_zs^S0 Historical Linguistics: language comparison, family trees of languages; laws of sound change; Neogrammarians; paved the way for modern linguistics in the 20th century.``` ` ```` ` $`$(`( ,`,0`04`48`8<`<``` `  X?4. Am>mN~SSf[$` `  Y@`  ZA`  " 4. Am>mN~sNf[_z0```  4.3 "}~\: sNf[;Vy;:SRNT,Sef[TqQef[, &{SvNa'`,@bcTc/fNav; /fN*N|~, N*NsQ||~((W|~-NvMOnQ[vQaIN); /f&{Sf[-NgxQWvNh.vQtq_Tm܏. Saussure: father of modern linguistics; language/speech; arbitrariness of language; synchronic/diachronic; signifier/signified; system of signs`    n["_KQwmY E. Durkheim`$ o\&[OmO_ Sigmund Freud` [D 4. Am>mN~sNf[_z" ``   | _VTf[[ Ernst Cassirerb"}~\N=O)Reuvcv^:  In the whole history of science there is perhaps no more fascinating a chapter than the rise of the new science of linguistics. In its importance it may very well be compared to the new science of Galileo, which in the 17th century, changed our whole concept of the physical world. l?Z#`b$`b$j$;b$$B  I04. Am>mN~egRf[>m` 4.4 'k2mRf[>m: ^bm,T,gT9hf[>m;!.s:MOf[,]wOo`T_ OOo`;;NMOTMO;;NTċ;q_T'Y;R;NIN;Vy0 Functional schools in Europe: the Prague School ; the Copenhagen School: contribution to phonology; given/new information; theme/rheme; topic/comment; influential around 1920-40 0``  #4. Am>mN~ V~g;NIN`  4.5 V~g;NIN: ZSSe, (\,^\_, T)Re,jKQyrI{; (\-l\+YGP, Syv[;Tf[ Nv[;NINT  ~vg ; _tf[ NvL:N;NIN; American structuralism: F. Boaz, E. Sapir, Leonard Bloomfield, Z. Hariss, C. Hockett, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, empiricism in philosophy,  blank slate , behaviorism in psychology.  `*  &V \EZSSe Boaz ` ]F(iO\ Sapir ` ^H L. Bloomfield` ^\_`_IQyr Wundt ` `JNSu Watson` aLeё~ Skinner` J14. Am>mN~V~g;NIN`  %NmN~TNYeW:ublb(0  4.5 VvTNYeW:ubl NvN:Wi}T;vQ‰, Tf[ Nv/Ut;NIN,_tf[ Nw;NIN; NuOeg,:_'YvRYr`;vh/fc:y,g(TN{|,g(; Chomsky s Generative grammar: a revolution; rationalism in philosophy; cognitive psychology; language is innate; initial state of mind; reveal nature of L to show nature of man.$ Z`   bM TNYeW Chomsky`  cNAm>mN~TNYeW:ubl.` ``$ 5eċTNl Chomky s position is not only unique within linguistics at the present time, but is probably unprecedented in the whole history of the subject& Right or wrong, Chomsky s theory of grammar is undoubtedly the most dynamic and influential, and no linguist who wishes to keep abreast of current developments in his subject can afford to ignore Chomsky s theoretical pronouncements.  John LyonsZ`dOChomsky`4 It seems plain that language acquisition is based on the child s discovery of what from a formal point of view is a deep and abstract theory  a generative grammar of his language  many of the concepts and principles of which are only remotely related to experience by long and intricate chains of the unconscious quasi-inferential steps. A consideration of the character of the grammar that is acquired, theZ`ePChomsky`:degenerate quality and narrowly limited extent of the available data, the striking uniformity of the resulting grammar, and their independence of intelligence, motivation, and emotional state, over wide range of variation, leave little hope that much of the structure of the language can be learned by an organism initially uninformed as to its general character.(-- Chomsky 1965Aspects of the theory of syntax) jj`bbbb0{  fQb(  >f6q `N_WN?QzSsNb__҉^ w/fNymeY0bavt sSk틄vNyubl0ُylvYi_TSR_{~Ǐ+o0 YBgveaƋvNctǏ z MbN~ z zvޏ0 z_`N`?Qz`N_vl'`( Nc0Rv틙e(ϑKN]TVKN\ ?Qz`N_NzfR0R:g0`~kesQ| NNNvsXV }CS]N+R gT@b_lvtS`N0WvmN~TNYeW:ublb(, cQRBlb__S;Slrz,Sl:N8h_;‰[EQR, cQEQR, ʑEQR;vQq_Tm܏,NN3vNe;TNlt[Tf[,_tf[,{:g,b__SI{, g!.s. To formalize the description of L; independence of syntax; emphasis on explanatory power; contribution to philosophy, psychology, computer science; biology; bio-linguistics 0``  gRChomsky:)YK b(@In  The Architecture of Language (2002:50) he wrote:  Lots of people reject the proposal that language is innate but nobody answers them. The reason why nobody answers is that their arguments would make no sense. There s no way to answer them. To say that  language is not innate is to say that there is no difference between my granddaughter, a rock and a rabbit. In other words, if you take a rock, a rabbit and`hSChomsky)YK `lmy granddaughter and put them in a community where people are talking English, they ll all learn English. If people believe that, then they believe that language is not innate. If they believe that there is a difference between my granddaughter, a rabbit and a rock, then they believe that language is innate. 77b$iTChomsky:Yef[ b(Chomsky (1988) & teaching should not be compared to filling a bottle with water but rather to helping a flower to grow in its own way. As any good teacher knows, the methods of instruction and range of material covered are of small important as compared with the success in arousing the natural curiosity of the students$Uwf[uv6q}YGY_ and stimulating their interest in&oZnb$`$B !jUChomskyYef[ b(exploring on their ownoRNNSbc"}vtQ. What the students learn passively will be quickly forgotten. What the students discover for themselves when their natural curiosity and creative impulses are aroused not only will be remembered but will be the basis for further exploration and inquiry and perhaps significant intellectual contributions.TZTb$ 2% 4. Am>mN~|~Rf[`  F4.6&Ofef[>m: lg+YeW, [Oe, mN~|~Rf[` 0/fY\|~~bv'Y|~.v~g1u>yOR@bQ[.v N'YR;?QzvN'YR. (WYef[ NTeSOf[ N g!.s. Language is a system of many sub-systems; three macro function of language (ideational, interpersonal, textual function); children s seven functions; contribution to language teaching and stylistics; popular in China.`Z   n|~ jThe material process: action and event. The transitivity systemSir'`|~: material process, mental process, relational process, verbal and behavioral process, existential process. The action process: intention process and supervention process. The mental process: internalized process and externalized process. T6Zl/36? No|~ ZThe internalized process: 1. perception, 2. reaction and 3. cognition processes. (p.322) There are realization relationships between various levels. The choice of meaning is realized by the choice of form, which in turn is realized by the choice of sounds. What can be done is realized by what can be meant, which is realized by what can be said.[ZCZpR Functions of Children s Language: The instrumental function: to meet his material needs, goods and services; The regulatory function: to control others behavior; The interactional function: to talk with others; The personal function: to express his feelings;.""*  qR d5. The heuristic function: to know about his own surroundings; 6. The imaginative function: to create surroundings; 7. The informative function: to provide information for others. The adult s language has to serve many functions, these are gradually reduced to a set of highly coded and abstract functions.33Z : .  & 5. N*Nef[>m wf[`  wf[: /f N/fN*NeAm>m? ؏/fN*NR/e? YN20N~70t^N, sQ_N_zfT'YvsQ|, /fw|~vNR;w|~/f1uaw, `a,tuS, baS,TctI{R~b. vh N/fcQL:N, /fʑ_wL:Nv_t~gT_tǏ z, c:ỳTQ(WvmB\ĉ_. Nir: TNYeW, Talmy, Jackendoff, Langacker, Lakoff, Biewish, Hudson, Fillmore,TalorI{.`    !  p] George Lakoff q^ George Lakoff?"We are neural beings," states Berkeley cognitive scientist George Lakoff. "Our brains take their input from the rest of our bodies. What our bodies are like and how they function in the world thus structures the very concepts we can use to think. We cannot think just anything - only what our embodied brains permit." .@1?r_@L. Talmy Ph.D.Berkerley Pioneering work In cognitive linguistics,A(`,*M45. N*Nef[>m wf[` `I am not if this is a new school or what. People say language and its use are based on our bodily experience and the way conceptualize it is called cognitive linguistics. It is a new approach to the study of language and mind. Topics include structure of characterization (prototype, metaphor, mental imagery), conceptual interface between syntax and..aa`N55. N*Nef[>mwf[` {semantics, the experiential and pragmatic background of language-in-use, and the relationship between language and thought.||`' 5. N*NeAm>mwf[`  wf[vtSR: IN~gl gnfM'`;l Nrz; lT͋Gll gaIN:S+R(&{Sޏ~SO). xvzW: tuS, i_U, lU, YIN'`, ba'`, lSI{. f[y'`: NTf[, _tf[, N{|f[, {:gyf[,^y~f[I{ gsQ. g N Tf[>m: #W0WNT>m,/OKQ)Rf[>m`    O65. N*NeAm>mwf[` NPrinciples: semantic structure has no universals; syntax is not independent; syntax and vocabulary form a continuum of symbols, not distinguished in meaning. Areas: characterization, metaphor, polysemy, iconicity, grammatization etc. Highly cross-disciplinary: philosophy, psychology, computer science, neurology, anthropology etc.OZO`s`Talmy s work(Cognitive semantics: S-NvƉ҉  There are some houses in the valley.  There is a house every now and then through the valley. la&qp  The bike is near the house .  The house is near the bike. RRf[  The ball rolled along the green.  The ball kept rolling along the green. La?L>c=LtaTalmy s workNNveRRThe beacon flashed. The beacon kept flashing. The beacon flashed 5 times in a row. The beacons kept flashing 5 times at a stretch. The beacons kept flashing 5 times at a stretch for 3 hours. $|jTalmy s work@Toward a Cognitive Semantics Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 2000 Volume I Concept Structuring Systems Part 1: Foundations of Conceptual Structuring in Language Ch. 1 The Relation of Grammar to Cognition Part 2: Configurational Structure Ch. 2 Fictive Motion in Language and "Ception" Ch. 3 How Language Structures Space ,AIl:e*  &# 0:; 0 0 0?}lTalmy s workPart 3: Attention Ch. 4 The Windowing of Attention in Language Ch. 5 Figure and Ground in Language Ch. 6 Structures that Relate Events Part 4: Force and Causation Ch. 7 Force Dynamics in Language and Cognition Ch. 8 The Semantics of Causation References IndexZz,##.  . 0>/ 0?b0 0c1 02 03 04 0~kTalmy s work'Volume II Typology and Process in Concept Structuring Part 1: Typological Patterns in the Representation of Event Structure Ch. 1 Lexicalization Patterns Ch. 2 Surveying Lexicalization Patterns Ch. 3 A Typology of Event Integration Ch. 4 Borrowing Semantic Space: Diachronic Hybridization (<R'%8& 0' 0( 0) 0&mTalmy s work Part 3: Other Cognitive Systems Ch. 7 The Cognitive Culture System Ch. 8 A Cognitive Framework for Narrative Structure Part 2: Semantic Interaction Ch. 5 Semantic Conflict and Resolution Ch. 6 Communicative Goals and Means: Their Cognitive Interaction References IndexZZ "4&@5 0 B6 0Cw7 08 09 0 vdLakoff s workThey began to think of expressions like  It s been a long bumpy road ,  The marriage is on the rock ,  It s off the track ,  We re spinning our wheels ,  We re going in different directions ,  We are at a crossroads in the relationship . Then they generalized: In every case, the love relationship is a vehicle. In every case, the common life goals of the lovers are destinations they want to get to together. And in every case the difficulties in the relationship are thingsZ&1  weLakoff s work that keep them from reaching the destination: spinning wheels, dead-end street, going in different directions, and so on. The travelers mapped the lovers, vehicles the mapped relationships. This is a kind of mathematical mapping. The reasoning that you do about travel is mapped onto the reasoning you do about love.  LOVE IS A JOURNEY is exactly in the mapping .lZlkxfLakoff s work What is a concept in the brain? How do we get concept and how do we get complicated concepts like grasping, and how do we get abstract concept like grasping ideas or causation or something like that? So the idea is this: meaning is mental stimulation in the brain using your physical brain. Mental stimulation is imagining something. So if I give you a sentence like  John picked up the bottle , in order to understand that sentence, you have to at (ZygLakoff s work( least be able to imagine someone picking up the bottle. If you cannot even imagine it, then you cannot understand the sentence. So understanding requires imagining something as if you were doing it, seeing it. that requires the same part of the brain as doing it or seeing it. How does that relate to the world? A concept is the minimal unit of linguistic meaning, the meaning of words are made up of concepts. There is a minimal unit of reasoning, which uses concepts.: "   zhLakoff s work The same part of the brain that moves your body also reasons about aspect. We call our theory simulation semantics because it says meaning is mental simulation using those parts of the brain that you use for the imagination of both seeing and acting. So concepts have an internal structure called neural parameters. And neural parameter is something as discovered in the neural system. For example, something like reaching for an object makes use of the parameter of direction. D^{i SfN&d`Rmn, 0ef[Am>m 0 Yx>y, 19950 Liu Runqing &Feng Zongxin, Schools and Theories of Linguistics, Nanjing Normal University Press, 200 4 bb$%`#`(`b0` '"Q8 SfN`8Liu0Running& Cui Gang, Readings in Linguistics: Ninety Years since Saussure . (Rmn ]R 0sNf[ TW 0. Yx>y 2009 Rmn ee 0ef[Ye z 0 Yx>y 2005 in English) `b$8b$Kb$b$`L rSfN` qLakoff, George. 1987. Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things. What Categories Reveal about the Mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Lakoff G & JohnsonM(1999). Philosophy in the Flesh: the Embodied Mind and its Challenge to Western Thought. NY: Basic Books. Langacker R (2002). Concept, Image, and Symbol: the Cognitive Basis of Grammar. Berlin/NY: Mouton de Gruyter.LrZICO': $isSfN` Ronald W. Langacker, 2008, Cognitive Grammar: A Basic Introduction. Oxford Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. 1999. 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X`7b$`sb$`r 71. :SRAm>mNR/e & b6b(  1.3 SSƉ҉TqQeƉ҉ Nw SN;uQN*NASW[, PN*NPWh. The diachronic and synchronic perspectives will form a cross, which like a coordinate. <{`zb$`JX R9(Distinction between Schools and Branches))b(` 1. :SRAm>mNR/e `  X1.2 f[vR/e: Branches: NQR:f[, |(MO)f[, ͋Glf[, b_` f[, Slf[, INf[, (uf[(?) Distinction from within: phonetics, phonology, lexicology, morphology, syntax, semantic, pragmatics (?) @b$b$ l 9 1. :SRAm>mNR/e2 `d`NYR: _tf[, >yOf[, { f[, ^y~f[, eSf[, N{| f[ 틙e^f[I{0 Distinction from without: psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, computation linguistics, neurolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, cultural linguistics, corpus linguistics, etc. $`` W>1. :SRAm>mNR/e `'YR{|: tf[, ^(uf[ Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.EEb6611. :SRAm>mNR/e `  D1.3 f[Am>m: O~l (600BC 18N~)traditional grammar; SSf[(19N~100t^) historical linguistics; sNf[_z("}}\, 20N~R) the beginning of modern linguistics; 4``` - P71. :SRAm>mNR/e ` 'k2mR;NIN(20N~20-50)European functionalism &Ofef[>m(1940 50)The London School; |~Rl(1960 s(W) Halliday s Systemic-functional grammar*`b$b);"1. :SRAm>mNR/e ` V~g;NINf[(1930 50) American structuralism Vlbcubl(1957 s) Chomsky s Generative Grammar wf[ today Cognitive linguisticsb$l $#H2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction %%b(& 2.1 b__>m l͑Rgvb__, ~g, bRTbRvR^, [ۏLb__cQTcQvb__S, Qv_t'`. The formal school: emphasize the formal, structural aspects of L, and distribution of elements; formalize the description of L; a psychological perspective.`p <#F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(2.2 R>m l͑RgvR, Rg N TB\!k NvbRvINR, :NRQ[b__, Qv>yO'`. The functional school: emphasize the functional nature of L; analyze the semantic function of elements on all levels; function determines form; a sociolinguistic perspective. 0``f F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(( "2.3 $N>mv:S+R b__;NIN:N/f_tsa;R;NIN/f>yOsa. The formal camp say language is a psychological fact; the functional camp say language is a social fact. J  b$b(8 k =%F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(2. b__;NINnfMsa/fN{|utW O;R;NIN/feg>yO[vnfMЏ(u. The formal camp say linguistic universals are men s biological inheritance; the functional camp say language similarities come from the common use of language. "`D >$F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(3.b__;NIN ?Qz`N_/fN{|vQ(WR;R;NINُ/f?QzNEvTRvSU\. The formal camp say that children are born with the ability to acquire language; the functional camp say that language learning comes from children s needs and development. 0``6?&F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(n4.b__;NINbS_brz|~xvzR;NINb>e(W>yOR-Nxvz0 The formalists regard language as an independent system; the formalists study language in the social context by referring to its social function."&`$12.[‰:SRAm>m `$  2.4 mb__l nN;TTf[ TNZTsQ|:NSTvR>mRl nNOTNyf[ 0b__>mb wbN|Rv~g ُN~gKNSN~bQV[vsQ|@bNMb glbcN NN:_vnfM'` blNNyKN:NSl wb/fvW@x@bNl/fNav VdklV~@wSP[ U\_0b0 @'2.[‰:SRAm>m ` Halliday: The basic opposition is not that between  structural and  generative grammars . The more fundamental opposition is between those that are primarily symtagmatic in orientation (by and large the formal grammars, with their roots in logic and philosophy)b S:2.[‰:SRAm>m ` and those that are primarily paradigmatic (by and large the functional ones, with their roots in rhetoric and ethnography). The former interpret a language a list of structures, among which, regular relationships may be established (b$b$A(2.[‰:SRAm>m ` (hence the introduction of transformation); they tend to emphasize universal features of language, to take grammar (which they call syntax) as the foundation of language (hence the grammar is arbitrary), and so to be organized around the sentence.b$C+2.[‰:SRAm>m ` R>mb wb/fN*NsQ|Q vQW,gsQ|PRN~gRN[sNN:_KNv N Tp bIN wZPvW@x@bNl/f6qv Vdkl/fV~@we,gb{ U\_v0$N*N5%KN gYNS _N gNvPt FON`no NN/f_ N Tv $N'Y5%_U\[݋_N_V0 0``" B)2.[‰:SRAm>m ` 2The functionalists interpret language as a network of relations, with structures coming in as the realization of these relationships; they tend to emphasize variables among languages, to take semantics as the foundation (hence the grammar is natural), and so to be organized around the text, or discourse. 33b$D*2.[‰:SRAm>m ` There are many cross-currents, with insights borrowed from one to the other; but they are ideologically fairly difficult and it is often difficulty to maintain a dialogue. 0b$`32.[‰:SRAm>m `  m `Halliday: In general the functional approach leans towards the applied rather than the pure, the rhetorical rather than the logical, the actual rather the ideal, the functional rather than the formal, the text rather than the sentence. `T;2.[‰:SRAm>m `The emphasis is on text analysis as a mode of action, a theory of language as a means of getting things done. xvzAm>fɲٺNm;Nel N w, R_~l, o~l, [ *O ؏/fN~TI{,_N g N T0$``n    F3. Am>/vN/vN/vN  z!4. Am>mN~  O~l`  4.1 O~l: N ^J0RbN, QNbN0RvQN'k2m;l͑T͋Gl, Sl_\, NYef[l:N;N,Y:Nĉ['`l, N/fcQ'`l;q_T_'Y,e_; vQ!.s/fR NcQ]wQ(vQ/gN)Y؏(WO(u). Traditional Grammar: focus on phonetics and words; school grammar, prescriptive; influential; its terms still in use today.`   H/4. Am>mN~SSf[ 2` `` 4.2 SSf[: k,SS,1|, SSĉ_;vQTgvelf[>m:NMQ20N~W{QNNMb;SSf[:NMQ20N~sNf[_zs^S0 Historical Linguistics: language comparison, family trees of languages; laws of sound change; Neogrammarians; paved the way for modern linguistics in the 20th century.``` ` ```` ` $`$(`( ,`,0`04`48`8<`<``` `  X?4. Am>mN~SSf[$` `  Y@`  ZA`  " 4. Am>mN~sNf[_z0```  4.3 "}~\: sNf[;Vy;:SRNT,Sef[TqQef[, &{SvNa'`,@bcTc/fNav; /fN*N|~, N*NsQ||~((W|~-NvMOnQ[vQaIN); /f&{Sf[-NgxQWvNh.vQtq_Tm܏. Saussure: father of modern linguistics; language/speech; arbitrariness of language; synchronic/diachronic; signifier/signified; system of signs`    n["_KQwmY E. Durkheim`$ o\&[OmO_ Sigmund Freud` [D 4. Am>mN~sNf[_z" ``   | _VTf[[ Ernst Cassirerb"}~\N=O)Reuvcv^:  In the whole history of science there is perhaps no more fascinating a chapter than the rise of the new science of linguistics. In its importance it may very well be compared to the new science of Galileo, which in the 17th century, changed our whole concept of the physical world. l?Z#`b$`b$j$;b$$B  I04. Am>mN~egRf[>m` 4.4 'k2mRf[>m: ^bm,T,gT9hf[>m;!.s:MOf[,]wOo`T_ OOo`;;NMOTMO;;NTċ;q_T'Y;R;NIN;Vy0 Functional schools in Europe: the Prague School ; the Copenhagen School: contribution to phonology; given/new information; theme/rheme; topic/comment; influential around 1920-40 0``  #4. Am>mN~ V~g;NIN`  4.5 V~g;NIN: ZSSe, (\,^\_, T)Re,jKQyrI{; (\-l\+YGP, Syv[;Tf[ Nv[;NINT  ~vg ; _tf[ NvL:N;NIN; American structuralism: F. Boaz, E. Sapir, Leonard Bloomfield, Z. Hariss, C. Hockett, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, empiricism in philosophy,  blank slate , behaviorism in psychology.  `*  &V \EZSSe Boaz ` ]F(iO\ Sapir ` ^H L. Bloomfield` ^\_`_IQyr Wundt ` `JNSu Watson` aLeё~ Skinner` J14. Am>mN~V~g;NIN`  %NmN~TNYeW:ublb(0  4.5 VvTNYeW:ubl NvN:Wi}T;vQ‰, Tf[ Nv/Ut;NIN,_tf[ Nw;NIN; NuOeg,:_'YvRYr`;vh/fc:y,g(TN{|,g(; Chomsky s Generative grammar: a revolution; rationalism in philosophy; cognitive psychology; language is innate; initial state of mind; reveal nature of L to show nature of man.$ Z`   bM TNYeW Chomsky`  cNAm>mN~TNYeW:ubl.` ``$ 5eċTNl Chomky s position is not only unique within linguistics at the present time, but is probably unprecedented in the whole history of the subject& Right or wrong, Chomsky s theory of grammar is undoubtedly the most dynamic and influential, and no linguist who wishes to keep abreast of current developments in his subject can afford to ignore Chomsky s theoretical pronouncements.  John LyonsZ`dOChomsky`4 It seems plain that language acquisition is based on the child s discovery of what from a formal point of view is a deep and abstract theory  a generative grammar of his language  many of the concepts and principles of which are only remotely related to experience by long and intricate chains of the unconscious quasi-inferential steps. A consideration of the character of the grammar that is acquired, theZ`ePChomsky`:degenerate quality and narrowly limited extent of the available data, the striking uniformity of the resulting grammar, and their independence of intelligence, motivation, and emotional state, over wide range of variation, leave little hope that much of the structure of the language can be learned by an organism initially uninformed as to its general character.(-- Chomsky 1965Aspects of the theory of syntax) jj`bbbb0{  fQb(  >f6q `N_WN?QzSsNb__҉^ w/fNymeY0bavt sSk틄vNyubl0ُylvYi_TSR_{~Ǐ+o0 YBgveaƋvNctǏ z MbN~ z zvޏ0 z_`N`?Qz`N_vl'`( Nc0Rv틙e(ϑKN]TVKN\ ?Qz`N_NzfR0R:g0`~kesQ| NNNvsXV }CS]N+R gT@b_lvtS`N0WvmN~TNYeW:ublb(, cQRBlb__S;Slrz,Sl:N8h_;‰[EQR, cQEQR, ʑEQR;vQq_Tm܏,NN3vNe;TNlt[Tf[,_tf[,{:g,b__SI{, g!.s. To formalize the description of L; independence of syntax; emphasis on explanatory power; contribution to philosophy, psychology, computer science; biology; bio-linguistics 0``  gRChomsky:)YK b(@In  The Architecture of Language (2002:50) he wrote:  Lots of people reject the proposal that language is innate but nobody answers them. The reason why nobody answers is that their arguments would make no sense. There s no way to answer them. To say that  language is not innate is to say that there is no difference between my granddaughter, a rock and a rabbit. In other words, if you take a rock, a rabbit and`hSChomsky)YK `lmy granddaughter and put them in a community where people are talking English, they ll all learn English. If people believe that, then they believe that language is not innate. If they believe that there is a difference between my granddaughter, a rabbit and a rock, then they believe that language is innate. 77b$iTChomsky:Yef[ b(Chomsky (1988) & teaching should not be compared to filling a bottle with water but rather to helping a flower to grow in its own way. As any good teacher knows, the methods of instruction and range of material covered are of small important as compared with the success in arousing the natural curiosity of the students$Uwf[uv6q}YGY_ and stimulating their interest in&oZnb$`$B !jUChomskyYef[ b(exploring on their ownoRNNSbc"}vtQ. What the students learn passively will be quickly forgotten. What the students discover for themselves when their natural curiosity and creative impulses are aroused not only will be remembered but will be the basis for further exploration and inquiry and perhaps significant intellectual contributions.TZTb$ 2% 4. Am>mN~|~Rf[`  F4.6&Ofef[>m: lg+YeW, [Oe, mN~|~Rf[` 0/fY\|~~bv'Y|~.v~g1u>yOR@bQ[.v N'YR;?QzvN'YR. (WYef[ NTeSOf[ N g!.s. Language is a system of many sub-systems; three macro function of language (ideational, interpersonal, textual function); children s seven functions; contribution to language teaching and stylistics; popular in China.`Z   n|~ jThe material process: action and event. The transitivity systemSir'`|~: material process, mental process, relational process, verbal and behavioral process, existential process. The action process: intention process and supervention process. The mental process: internalized process and externalized process. T6Zl/36? No|~ ZThe internalized process: 1. perception, 2. reaction and 3. cognition processes. (p.322) There are realization relationships between various levels. The choice of meaning is realized by the choice of form, which in turn is realized by the choice of sounds. What can be done is realized by what can be meant, which is realized by what can be said.[ZCZpR Functions of Children s Language: The instrumental function: to meet his material needs and services;]wQ The regulatory function: to control others behavior; The interactional function: to talk with others;NE The personal function: to express his feelings;*NNh .""W   5 0    qR |5. The heuristic function: to know about his own surroundings;c"} 6. The imaginative function: to create surroundings;`a 7. The informative function: to provide information for others.JTw The adult s language has to serve many functions, these are gradually reduced to a set of highly coded and abstract functions.?? %    $ ~ tR ZFunctions of adult s language: Ideational function, interpersonal function and textual function.i_R0NER0{R The Ideational function i_R  to convey new information unknown to the hearer. It is the meaning potential, used in all languages. It is to refer to categories of experience of the world. $.oN`     uR 2.The interpersonal functionNER : it embodies all the uses of language to express social and personal relations; the ways the speaker enters into a speech situation and performs a speech act. It is realized by moodl and modality``.H l Z  Q    vR The Textual Function{R : Language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living message different from a random list of sentences.  John saw a handbag in a field. John walked across a field and picked up a handbag.John took a handbag to the police station and John handed a handbag to a policeman. TuZf    . "& 5. N*Nef[>m wf[`  wf[: /f N/fN*NeAm>m? ؏/fN*NR/e? YN20N~70t^N, sQ_N_zfT'YvsQ|, /fw|~vNR;w|~/f1uaw, `a,tuS, baS,TctI{R~b. vh N/fcQL:N, /fʑ_wL:Nv_t~gT_tǏ z, c:ỳTQ(WvmB\ĉ_. Nir: TNYeW, Talmy, Jackendoff, Langacker, Lakoff, Biewish, Hudson, Fillmore,TalorI{.`    !  p]"y+Y George Lakoff q^$y+Y George Lakoff?"We are neural beings," states Berkeley cognitive scientist George Lakoff. "Our brains take their input from the rest of our bodies. What our bodies are like and how they function in the world thus structures the very concepts we can use to think. We cannot think just anything - only what our embodied brains permit." .@1?r_@L. Talmy Ph.D.Berkerley Pioneering work In cognitive linguistics,A(`,*M45. N*Nef[>m wf[` `I am not if this is a new school or what. People say language and its use are based on our bodily experience and the way conceptualize it is called cognitive linguistics. It is a new approach to the study of language and mind. Topics include structure of characterization (prototype, metaphor, mental imagery), conceptual interface between syntax and..aa`N55. N*Nef[>mwf[` {semantics, the experiential and pragmatic background of language-in-use, and the relationship between language and thought.||`' 5. N*NeAm>mwf[`  wf[vtSR: IN~gl gnfM'`;l Nrz; lT͋Gll gaIN:S+R(&{Sޏ~SO). xvzW: tuS, i_U, lU, YIN'`, ba'`, lSI{. f[y'`: NTf[, _tf[, N{|f[, {:gyf[,^y~f[I{ gsQ. g N Tf[>m: #W0WNT>m,/OKQ)Rf[>m`    O65. N*NeAm>mwf[` NPrinciples: semantic structure has no universals; syntax is not independent; syntax and vocabulary form a continuum of symbols, not distinguished in meaning. Areas: characterization, metaphor, polysemy, iconicity, grammatization etc. Highly cross-disciplinary: philosophy, psychology, computer science, neurology, anthropology etc.OZO`s`"TX\[ Talmy s work(Cognitive semantics: S-NvƉ҉  There are some houses in the valley.  There is a house every now and then through the valley. la&qp  The bike is near the house .  The house is near the bike. RRf[  The ball rolled along the green.  The ball kept rolling along the green. La?L>c=Lta"TX\[ Talmy s work&NNveRRThe beacon flashed. The beacon kept flashing. The beacon flashed 5 times in a row. The beacons kept flashing 5 times at a stretch. The beacons kept flashing 5 times at a stretch for 3 hours. $|j$TX\[ Talmy s work&@Toward a Cognitive Semantics Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 2000 Volume I Concept Structuring Systems Part 1: Foundations of Conceptual Structuring in Language Ch. 1 The Relation of Grammar to Cognition Part 2: Configurational Structure Ch. 2 Fictive Motion in Language and "Ception" Ch. 3 How Language Structures Space ,AIl:e*  &# 0:; 0 0 0?}l"TX\[ Talmy s work&Part 3: Attention Ch. 4 The Windowing of Attention in Language Ch. 5 Figure and Ground in Language Ch. 6 Structures that Relate Events Part 4: Force and Causation Ch. 7 Force Dynamics in Language and Cognition Ch. 8 The Semantics of Causation References IndexZz,##.  . 0>/ 0?b0 0c1 02 03 04 0~k"TX\[ Talmy s work&'Volume II Typology and Process in Concept Structuring Part 1: Typological Patterns in the Representation of Event Structure Ch. 1 Lexicalization Patterns Ch. 2 Surveying Lexicalization Patterns Ch. 3 A Typology of Event Integration Ch. 4 Borrowing Semantic Space: Diachronic Hybridization (<R'%8& 0' 0( 0) 0&m"TX\[ Talmy s work& Part 3: Other Cognitive Systems Ch. 7 The Cognitive Culture System Ch. 8 A Cognitive Framework for Narrative Structure Part 2: Semantic Interaction Ch. 5 Semantic Conflict and Resolution Ch. 6 Communicative Goals and Means: Their Cognitive Interaction References IndexZZ "4&@5 0 B6 0Cw7 08 09 0 vd"y+Y Lakoff s workThey began to think of expressions like  It s been a long bumpy road ,  The marriage is on the rock ,  It s off the track ,  We re spinning our wheels ,  We re going in different directions ,  We are at a crossroads in the relationship . Then they generalized: In every case, the love relationship is a vehicle. In every case, the common life goals of the lovers are destinations they want to get to together. And in every case the difficulties in the relationship are thingsZ&1  we$y+Y Lakoff s work that keep them from reaching the destination: spinning wheels, dead-end street, going in different directions, and so on. The travelers mapped the lovers, vehicles the mapped relationships. This is a kind of mathematical mapping. The reasoning that you do about travel is mapped onto the reasoning you do about love.  LOVE IS A JOURNEY is exactly in the mapping .lZlkxf$y+Y Lakoff s work What is a concept in the brain? How do we get concept and how do we get complicated concepts like grasping, and how do we get abstract concept like grasping ideas or causation or something like that? So the idea is this: meaning is mental stimulation in the brain using your physical brain. Mental stimulation is imagining something. So if I give you a sentence like  John picked up the bottle , in order to understand that sentence, you have to at (Zyg$y+Y Lakoff s work( least be able to imagine someone picking up the bottle. If you cannot even imagine it, then you cannot understand the sentence. So understanding requires imagining something as if you were doing it, seeing it. that requires the same part of the brain as doing it or seeing it. How does that relate to the world? A concept is the minimal unit of linguistic meaning, the meaning of words are made up of concepts. There is a minimal unit of reasoning, which uses concepts.: "   zh&y+Y Lakoff s work The same part of the brain that moves your body also reasons about aspect. We call our theory simulation semantics because it says meaning is mental simulation using those parts of the brain that you use for the imagination of both seeing and acting. So concepts have an internal structure called neural parameters. And neural parameter is something as discovered in the neural system. For example, something like reaching for an object makes use of the parameter of direction. D^wwf[SfN qLakoff, George. 1987. Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things. What Categories Reveal about the Mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Lakoff G & JohnsonM(1999). Philosophy in the Flesh: the Embodied Mind and its Challenge to Western Thought. NY: Basic Books. Langacker R (2002). Concept, Image, and Symbol: the Cognitive Basis of Grammar. Berlin/NY: Mouton de Gruyter.LrZICO': $i{i SfN&d`Rmn, 0ef[Am>m 0 Yx>y, 19950 Liu Runqing &Feng Zongxin, Schools and Theories of Linguistics, Nanjing Normal University Press, 200 4 bb$%`#`(`b0` '"Q8 SfN`4Liu0Running& Cui Gang, Readings in Linguistics: Ninety Years since Saussure . (Rmn ]R 0sNf[ TW 0. Yx>y 2009 Rmn ee 0ef[Ye z 0 Yx>y 2005 in English) Pb$8b$Jb$`L    0 0 `(  ` ` s * CS"  `}    ` s * DS"  `  "p`PpH ` 0޽h ? h80___PPT10.V Px  0 @ d(  d d s * CS"  `}    d s * DS"  `<  H d 0޽h ? h80___PPT10.V 0s  0 p p(  p p s *pu  CS"  `}  u   p s *u  DS"  ` u  H p 0޽h ? h80___PPT10.` pM{n  0  t(  t t s *\Ne  CS"  `}  u   t s *e  DS"  `< u  H t 0޽h ? h80___PPT10.`   0  x(  x x s * CS"  `}  Z   x s * DS"  ` Z  H x 0޽h ? h80___PPT10.` ݠ  0 $(    s *m  CS"  `}  m  r  S m D ` m  V  C .ALakoff200/:H  0޽h ? h80___PPT10.F pL  0 (    s * m  CS"  `}  m    s *m  DS"  ` m  H  0޽h ? h80___PPT10.G p4!2  0 (  (     <cm  C"<   `}  m    s * fm  DS"  ` m  H  0޽h ? 3380___PPT10.@  0 0 (      s *@ CS"  `}      s *z DS"  `  H   0޽h ? h80___PPT10.M  ;  0 @$(  $ $ s *, CS"  `}  r   $ s * DS"  ` r  H $ 0޽h ? h80___PPT10.N  d.  0 H(  H H s *8M CS"  `    H s *XO DS" i  H H 0޽h ? h80___PPT10.R p  0 P(  P P s *} CS"  `    P s *0 DS" q  H P 0޽h ? h80___PPT10.S   0 L(  L L s *Pe CS"  `    L s *DS" q  H L 0޽h ? h80___PPT10.S E  0  T(  T T s * CS"  `    T s *) DS"  `i  H T 0޽h ? 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 %qnef[Am>m+o Schools of Linguistics: some random thoughts28 `.b0b - 4SNYV'Yf[ -NVYYexvz-N_ Rmn4Z` ` ` U<:NUOAm>m  `  b;N _ ۏeQN*NxvzWe ,{N[‰ ,{N[``ideas) atQ0 [‰ZPxvz +RN NNb0RN*N\W0\v̑S 7hO(g Ng0N㉏[‰̀of `O N1YeT0 [``0Tf[t_atQ kS[~b/g'`vNatQ f gaIN0b/g/fKbk cؚƋ/fBl0`dV=1. :SRAm>mNR/e 4 b0b6b($1.1 Am>mYc`no, gNhNir, NhW\O, ;N‰p, xvzel, vLeN, gvQq_ T, __ gSSƉ҉0[*g_[W-NvY g0 Schools refer to trends of thought, with their representative figures, works, unique ideas, methods and influence on later development; a diachronic perspective. &``  5:SRAm>mNR/e , " b6b( Z 1.2 R/eYcW, xvzV, _N g~xQW\O, gq_TvNir, Y(uqQe‰p0SY*NAm>m[[ gǏ!.s0 (Branches refer to areas of study, with their classics, and influential figures; often a synchronic perspective.) X`7b$`sb$`r 71. :SRAm>mNR/e & b6b(  1.3 SSƉ҉TqQeƉ҉ Nw SN;uQN*NASW[, PN*NPWh. The diachronic and synchronic perspectives will form a cross, which like a coordinate. <{`zb$`JX R9(Distinction between Schools and Branches))b(` 1. :SRAm>mNR/e `  X1.2 f[vR/e: Branches: NQR:f[, |(MO)f[, ͋Glf[, b_` f[, Slf[, INf[, (uf[(?) Distinction from within: phonetics, phonology, lexicology, morphology, syntax, semantic, pragmatics (?) @b$b$ l 9 1. :SRAm>mNR/e2 `d`NYR: _tf[, >yOf[, { f[, ^y~f[, eSf[, N{| f[ 틙e^f[I{0 Distinction from without: psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, computation linguistics, neurolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, cultural linguistics, corpus linguistics, etc. $`` W>1. :SRAm>mNR/e `'YR{|: tf[, ^(uf[ Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.EEb6611. :SRAm>mNR/e `  D1.3 f[Am>m: O~l (600BC 18N~)traditional grammar; SSf[(19N~100t^) historical linguistics; sNf[_z("}}\, 20N~R) the beginning of modern linguistics; 4``` - P71. :SRAm>mNR/e ` 'k2mR;NIN(20N~20-50)European functionalism &Ofef[>m(1940 50)The London School; |~Rl(1960 s(W) Halliday s Systemic-functional grammar*`b$b);"1. :SRAm>mNR/e ` V~g;NINf[(1930 50) American structuralism Vlbcubl(1957 s) Chomsky s Generative Grammar wf[ today Cognitive linguisticsb$l $#H2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction %%b(& 2.1 b__>m l͑Rgvb__, ~g, bRTbRvR^, [ۏLb__cQTcQvb__S, Qv_t'`. The formal school: emphasize the formal, structural aspects of L, and distribution of elements; formalize the description of L; a psychological perspective.`p <#F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(2.2 R>m l͑RgvR, Rg N TB\!k NvbRvINR, :NRQ[b__, Qv>yO'`. The functional school: emphasize the functional nature of L; analyze the semantic function of elements on all levels; function determines form; a sociolinguistic perspective. 0``f F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(( "2.3 $N>mv:S+R b__;NIN:N/f_tsa;R;NIN/f>yOsa. The formal camp say language is a psychological fact; the functional camp say language is a social fact. J  b$b(8 k =%F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(2. b__;NINnfMsa/fN{|utW O;R;NIN/feg>yO[vnfMЏ(u. The formal camp say linguistic universals are men s biological inheritance; the functional camp say language similarities come from the common use of language. "`D >$F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(3.b__;NIN ?Qz`N_/fN{|vQ(WR;R;NINُ/f?QzNEvTRvSU\. The formal camp say that children are born with the ability to acquire language; the functional camp say that language learning comes from children s needs and development. 0``6?&F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(n4.b__;NINbS_brz|~xvzR;NINb>e(W>yOR-Nxvz0 The formalists regard language as an independent system; the formalists study language in the social context by referring to its social function."&`$12.[‰:SRAm>m `$  2.4 mb__l nN;TTf[ TNZTsQ|:NSTvR>mRl nNOTNyf[ 0b__>mb wbN|Rv~g ُN~gKNSN~bQV[vsQ|@bNMb glbcN NN:_vnfM'` blNNyKN:NSl wb/fvW@x@bNl/fNav VdklV~@wSP[ U\_0b0 @'2.[‰:SRAm>m ` Halliday: The basic opposition is not that between  structural and  generative grammars . The more fundamental opposition is between those that are primarily symtagmatic in orientation (by and large the formal grammars, with their roots in logic and philosophy)b S:2.[‰:SRAm>m ` and those that are primarily paradigmatic (by and large the functional ones, with their roots in rhetoric and ethnography). The former interpret a language a list of structures, among which, regular relationships may be established (b$b$A(2.[‰:SRAm>m ` (hence the introduction of transformation); they tend to emphasize universal features of language, to take grammar (which they call syntax) as the foundation of language (hence the grammar is arbitrary), and so to be organized around the sentence.b$C+2.[‰:SRAm>m ` R>mb wb/fN*NsQ|Q vQW,gsQ|PRN~gRN[sNN:_KNv N Tp bIN wZPvW@x@bNl/f6qv Vdkl/fV~@we,gb{ U\_v0$N*N5%KN gYNS _N gNvPt FON`no NN/f_ N Tv $N'Y5%_U\[݋_N_V0 0``" B)2.[‰:SRAm>m ` 2The functionalists interpret language as a network of relations, with structures coming in as the realization of these relationships; they tend to emphasize variables among languages, to take semantics as the foundation (hence the grammar is natural), and so to be organized around the text, or discourse. 33b$D*2.[‰:SRAm>m ` There are many cross-currents, with insights borrowed from one to the other; but they are ideologically fairly difficult and it is often difficulty to maintain a dialogue. 0b$`32.[‰:SRAm>m `  m `Halliday: In general the functional approach leans towards the applied rather than the pure, the rhetorical rather than the logical, the actual rather the ideal, the functional rather than the formal, the text rather than the sentence. `T;2.[‰:SRAm>m `The emphasis is on text analysis as a mode of action, a theory of language as a means of getting things done. xvzAm>fɲٺNm;Nel N w, R_~l, o~l, [ *O ؏/fN~TI{,_N g N T0$``n    F3. Am>/vN/vN/vN  z!5. Am>mN~  O~l`  4.1 O~l: N ^J0RbN, QNbN0RvQN'k2m;l͑T͋Gl, Sl_\, NYef[l:N;N,Y:Nĉ['`l, N/fcQ'`l;q_T_'Y,e_; vQ!.s/fR NcQ]wQ(vQ/gN)Y؏(WO(u). Traditional Grammar: focus on phonetics and words; school grammar, prescriptive; influential; its terms still in use today.`   H/5. Am>mN~SSf[ 2` `` 4.2 SSf[: k,SS,1|, SSĉ_;vQTgvelf[>m:NMQ20N~W{QNNMb;SSf[:NMQ20N~sNf[_zs^S0 Historical Linguistics: language comparison, family trees of languages; laws of sound change; Neogrammarians; paved the way for modern linguistics in the 20th century.``` ` ```` ` $`$(`( ,`,0`04`48`8<`<``` `  X?5. Am>mN~SSf[$` `  Y@5. Am>mN~SSf[$` `  ZA`  " 6. Am>mN~sNf[_z0```  4.3 "}~\: sNf[;Vy;:SRNT,Sef[TqQef[, &{SvNa'`,@bcTc/fNav; /fN*N|~, N*NsQ||~((W|~-NvMOnQ[vQaIN); /f&{Sf[-NgxQWvNh.vQtq_Tm܏. Saussure: father of modern linguistics; language/speech; arbitrariness of language; synchronic/diachronic; signifier/signified; system of signs`    n["_KQwmY E. Durkheim`$ o\&[OmO_ Sigmund Freud` [D 6. Am>mN~sNf[_z" ``   | _VTf[[ Ernst Cassirerb"}~\N=O)Reuvcv^:  In the whole history of science there is perhaps no more fascinating a chapter than the rise of the new science of linguistics. In its importance it may very well be compared to the new science of Galileo, which in the 17th century, changed our whole concept of the physical world. l?Z#`b$`b$j$;b$$B  I07. Am>mN~egRf[>m` 4.4 'k2mRf[>m: ^bm,T,gT9hf[>m;!.s:MOf[,]wOo`T_ OOo`;;NMOTMO;;NTċ;q_T'Y;R;NIN;Vy0 Functional schools in Europe: the Prague School ; the Copenhagen School: contribution to phonology; given/new information; theme/rheme; topic/comment; influential around 1920-40 0``  #8. Am>mN~ V~g;NIN`  4.5 V~g;NIN: ZSSe, (\,^\_, T)Re,jKQyrI{; (\-l\+YGP, Syv[;Tf[ Nv[;NINT  ~vg ; _tf[ NvL:N;NIN; American structuralism: F. Boaz, E. Sapir, Leonard Bloomfield, Z. Hariss, C. Hockett, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, empiricism in philosophy,  blank slate , behaviorism in psychology.  `*  &V \EZSSe Boaz ` ]F(iO\ Sapir ` ^H L. Bloomfield` ^\_`_IQyr Wundt ` `JNSu Watson` aLeё~ Skinner` J18. Am>mN~V~g;NIN`  %NmN~TNYeW:ublb(0  4.5 VvTNYeW:ubl NvN:Wi}T;vQ‰, Tf[ Nv/Ut;NIN,_tf[ Nw;NIN; NuOeg,:_'YvRYr`;vh/fc:y,g(TN{|,g(; Chomsky s Generative grammar: a revolution; rationalism in philosophy; cognitive psychology; language is innate; initial state of mind; reveal nature of L to show nature of man.$ Z`   bM TNYeW Chomsky`  cNAm>mN~TNYeW:ubl.` ``$ 5eċTNl Chomky s position is not only unique within linguistics at the present time, but is probably unprecedented in the whole history of the subject& Right or wrong, Chomsky s theory of grammar is undoubtedly the most dynamic and influential, and no linguist who wishes to keep abreast of current developments in his subject can afford to ignore Chomsky s theoretical pronouncements.  John LyonsZ`dOChomsky`4 It seems plain that language acquisition is based on the child s discovery of what from a formal point of view is a deep and abstract theory  a generative grammar of his language  many of the concepts and principles of which are only remotely related to experience by long and intricate chains of the unconscious quasi-inferential steps. A consideration of the character of the grammar that is acquired, theZ`ePChomsky`:degenerate quality and narrowly limited extent of the available data, the striking uniformity of the resulting grammar, and their independence of intelligence, motivation, and emotional state, over wide range of variation, leave little hope that much of the structure of the language can be learned by an organism initially uninformed as to its general character.(-- Chomsky 1965Aspects of the theory of syntax) jj`bbbb0{  fQb(  >f6q `N_WN?QzSsNb__҉^ w/fNymeY0bavt sSk틄vNyubl0ُylvYi_TSR_{~Ǐ+o0 YBgveaƋvNctǏ z MbN~ z zvޏ0 z_`N`?Qz`N_vl'`( Nc0Rv틙e(ϑKN]TVKN\ ?Qz`N_NzfR0R:g0`~kesQ| NNNvsXV }CS]N+R gT@b_lvtS`N0WvmN~TNYeW:ublb(, cQRBlb__S;Slrz,Sl:N8h_;‰[EQR, cQEQR, ʑEQR;vQq_Tm܏,NN3vNe;TNlt[Tf[,_tf[,{:g,b__SI{, g!.s. To formalize the description of L; independence of syntax; emphasis on explanatory power; contribution to philosophy, psychology, computer science; biology; bio-linguistics 0``  gRChomsky:)YK b(@In  The Architecture of Language (2002:50) he wrote:  Lots of people reject the proposal that language is innate but nobody answers them. The reason why nobody answers is that their arguments would make no sense. There s no way to answer them. To say that  language is not innate is to say that there is no difference between my granddaughter, a rock and a rabbit. In other words, if you take a rock, a rabbit and`hSChomsky)YK `lmy granddaughter and put them in a community where people are talking English, they ll all learn English. If people believe that, then they believe that language is not innate. If they believe that there is a difference between my granddaughter, a rabbit and a rock, then they believe that language is innate. 77b$iTChomsky:Yef[ b(Chomsky (1988) & teaching should not be compared to filling a bottle with water but rather to helping a flower to grow in its own way. As any good teacher knows, the methods of instruction and range of material covered are of small important as compared with the success in arousing the natural curiosity of the students$Uw      !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<S> @ABCDEFGHIJILMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}f[uv6q}YGY_ and stimulating their interest in&oZnb$`$B !jUChomskyYef[ b(exploring on their ownoRNNSbc"}vtQ. What the students learn passively will be quickly forgotten. What the students discover for themselves when their natural curiosity and creative impulses are aroused not only will be remembered but will be the basis for further exploration and inquiry and perhaps significant intellectual contributions.TZTb$ 2%  10. Am>mN~|~Rf[`  d4.6&Ofef[>m: V g`ENxvz O~ N 0Q0bl9eiI{wNV W Tf[[9N<\\mTegb:N|~Rlf[>m0lg+YeW, [Oe, mN~|~Rf[` The London School: Britain has a long tradition of language studies. The great phoneticians Henry Sweet Daniel Jones0 Malinovki, J.R. Firth, M.A.K. Halliday; meaning is use; context determines meaning; emphasis on both structure and system; linguistic potential and actual behavior; paradigmatic/ syntagmatic relations; types of functions of language 0aZ\``b\      +kV"Malinovski lg+YeW`  lX`[Oe J. R. Firth` mZM.A.K. Halliday` mN~|~Rf[` 0/fY\|~~bv'Y|~.v~g1u>yOR@bQ[.v N'YR;?QzvN'YR. (WYef[ NTeSOf[ N g!.s. Language is a system of many sub-systems; three macro function of language (ideational, interpersonal, textual function); children s seven functions; contribution to language teaching and stylistics; popular in China.`Z   n|~ jThe material process: action and event. The transitivity systemSir'`|~: material process, mental process, relational process, verbal and behavioral process, existential process. The action process: intention process and supervention process. The mental process: internalized process and externalized process. T6Zl/36? No|~ ZThe internalized process: 1. perception, 2. reaction and 3. cognition processes. (p.322) There are realization relationships between various levels. The choice of meaning is realized by the choice of form, which in turn is realized by the choice of sounds. What can be done is realized by what can be meant, which is realized by what can be said.[ZCZpR Functions of Children s Language: The instrumental function: to meet his material needs and services;]wQ The regulatory function: to control others behavior; The interactional function: to talk with others;NE The personal function: to express his feelings;*NNh .""W   5 0    qR |5. The heuristic function: to know about his own surroundings;c"} 6. The imaginative function: to create surroundings;`a 7. The informative function: to provide information for others.JTw The adult s language has to serve many functions, these are gradually reduced to a set of highly coded and abstract functions.?? %    $ ~ tR ZFunctions of adult s language: Ideational function, interpersonal function and textual function.i_R0NER0{R The Ideational function i_R  to convey new information unknown to the hearer. It is the meaning potential, used in all languages. It is to refer to categories of experience of the world. $.oN`     uR 2.The interpersonal functionNER : it embodies all the uses of language to express social and personal relations; the ways the speaker enters into a speech situation and performs a speech act. It is realized by moodl and modality``.H l Z  Q    vR The Textual Function{R : Language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living message different from a random list of sentences.  John saw a handbag in a field. John walked across a field and picked up a handbag.John took a handbag to the police station and John handed a handbag to a policeman. TuZf    . "&  11. N*Nef[>m wf[`  wf[: /f N/fN*NeAm>m? ؏/fN*NR/e? YN20N~70t^N, sQ_N_zfT'YvsQ|, /fw|~vNR;w|~/f1uaw, `a,tuS, baS,TctI{R~b. vh N/fcQL:N, /fʑ_wL:Nv_t~gT_tǏ z, c:ỳTQ(WvmB\ĉ_. Nir: TNYeW, Talmy, Jackendoff, Langacker, Lakoff, Biewish, Hudson, Fillmore,TalorI{.`    !  p]"y+Y George Lakoff q^$y+Y George Lakoff?"We are neural beings," states Berkeley cognitive scientist George Lakoff. "Our brains take their input from the rest of our bodies. What our bodies are like and how they function in the world thus structures the very concepts we can use to think. We cannot think just anything - only what our embodied brains permit." .@1?r_@L. Talmy Ph.D.Berkerley Pioneering work In cognitive linguistics,A(`,*M4 11. N*Nef[>m wf[` cI am not if this is a new school or what. People say language and its use are based on our bodily experience and the way to conceptualize it is called cognitive linguistics. It is a new approach to the study of language and mind. Topics include structure of characterization (prototype, metaphor, mental imagery), conceptual interface between syntax and..dd`N511. N*Nef[>mwf[` {semantics, the experiential and pragmatic background of language-in-use, and the relationship between language and thought.||`' 11. N*NeAm>mwf[`  wf[vtSR: IN~gl gnfM'`;l Nrz; lT͋Gll gaIN:S+R(&{Sޏ~SO). xvzW: tuS, i_U, lU, YIN'`, ba'`, lSI{. f[y'`: NTf[, _tf[, N{|f[, {:gyf[,^y~f[I{ gsQ. g N Tf[>m: #W0WNT>m,/OKQ)Rf[>m`    O611. N*NeAm>mwf[` NPrinciples: semantic structure has no universals; syntax is not independent; syntax and vocabulary form a continuum of symbols, not distinguished in meaning. Areas: characterization, metaphor, polysemy, iconicity, grammatization etc. Highly cross-disciplinary: philosophy, psychology, computer science, neurology, anthropology etc.OZO`s`"TX\[ Talmy s work(Cognitive semantics: S-NvƉ҉  There are some houses in the valley.  There is a house every now and then through the valley. la&qp  The bike is near the house .  The house is near the bike. RRf[  The ball rolled along the green.  The ball kept rolling along the green. La?L>c=Lta"TX\[ Talmy s work&NNveRRThe beacon flashed. The beacon kept flashing. The beacon flashed 5 times in a row. The beacons kept flashing 5 times at a stretch. The beacons kept flashing 5 times at a stretch for 3 hours. $|j$TX\[ Talmy s work&@Toward a Cognitive Semantics Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 2000 Volume I Concept Structuring Systems Part 1: Foundations of Conceptual Structuring in Language Ch. 1 The Relation of Grammar to Cognition Part 2: Configurational Structure Ch. 2 Fictive Motion in Language and "Ception" Ch. 3 How Language Structures Space ,AIl:e*  &# 0:; 0 0 0?}l"TX\[ Talmy s work&Part 3: Attention Ch. 4 The Windowing of Attention in Language Ch. 5 Figure and Ground in Language Ch. 6 Structures that Relate Events Part 4: Force and Causation Ch. 7 Force Dynamics in Language and Cognition Ch. 8 The Semantics of Causation References IndexZz,##.  . 0>/ 0?b0 0c1 02 03 04 0~k"TX\[ Talmy s work&'Volume II Typology and Process in Concept Structuring Part 1: Typological Patterns in the Representation of Event Structure Ch. 1 Lexicalization Patterns Ch. 2 Surveying Lexicalization Patterns Ch. 3 A Typology of Event Integration Ch. 4 Borrowing Semantic Space: Diachronic Hybridization (<R'%8& 0' 0( 0) 0&m"TX\[ Talmy s work& Part 3: Other Cognitive Systems Ch. 7 The Cognitive Culture System Ch. 8 A Cognitive Framework for Narrative Structure Part 2: Semantic Interaction Ch. 5 Semantic Conflict and Resolution Ch. 6 Communicative Goals and Means: Their Cognitive Interaction References IndexZZ "4&@5 0 B6 0Cw7 08 09 0 vd"y+Y Lakoff s workThey began to think of expressions like  It s been a long bumpy road ,  The marriage is on the rock ,  It s off the track ,  We re spinning our wheels ,  We re going in different directions ,  We are at a crossroads in the relationship . Then they generalized: In every case, the love relationship is a vehicle. In every case, the common life goals of the lovers are destinations they want to get to together. And in every case the difficulties in the relationship are thingsZ&1  we$y+Y Lakoff s work that keep them from reaching the destination: spinning wheels, dead-end street, going in different directions, and so on. The travelers mapped the lovers, vehicles the mapped relationships. This is a kind of mathematical mapping. The reasoning that you do about travel is mapped onto the reasoning you do about love.  LOVE IS A JOURNEY is exactly in the mapping .lZlkxf$y+Y Lakoff s work What is a concept in the brain? How do we get concept and how do we get complicated concepts like grasping, and how do we get abstract concept like grasping ideas or causation or something like that? So the idea is this: meaning is mental stimulation in the brain using your physical brain. Mental stimulation is imagining something. So if I give you a sentence like  John picked up the bottle , in order to understand that sentence, you have to at (Zyg$y+Y Lakoff s work( least be able to imagine someone picking up the bottle. If you cannot even imagine it, then you cannot understand the sentence. So understanding requires imagining something as if you were doing it, seeing it. that requires the same part of the brain as doing it or seeing it. How does that relate to the world? A concept is the minimal unit of linguistic meaning, the meaning of words are made up of concepts. There is a minimal unit of reasoning, which uses concepts.: "   zh&y+Y Lakoff s work The same part of the brain that moves your body also reasons about aspect. We call our theory simulation semantics because it says meaning is mental simulation using those parts of the brain that you use for the imagination of both seeing and acting. So concepts have an internal structure called neural parameters. And neural parameter is something as discovered in the neural system. For example, something like reaching for an object makes use of the parameter of direction. D^w 11. N*NeAm>mwf[ ` qLakoff, George. 1987. Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things. What Categories Reveal about the Mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Lakoff G & JohnsonM(1999). Philosophy in the Flesh: the Embodied Mind and its Challenge to Western Thought. NY: Basic Books. Langacker R (2002). Concept, Image, and Symbol: the Cognitive Basis of Grammar. Berlin/NY: Mouton de Gruyter.LrZICO': $i{i12. SfN& d`Rmn, 0ef[Am>m 0 Yx>y, 19950 Liu Runqing &Feng Zongxin, Schools and Theories of Linguistics, Nanjing Normal University Press, 200 4 bb$%`#`(`b0` '"Q8 12. SfN `4Liu0Running& Cui Gang, Readings in Linguistics: Ninety Years since Saussure . (Rmn ]R 0sNf[ TW 0. Yx>y 2009 Rmn ee 0ef[Ye z 0 Yx>y 2005 in English) Pb$8b$Jb$`L    0 ( x(  x x  <*^ 3 C"<   `}  ^   x s *+^ 3 DS"  ` ^  H x 0޽h ? 3380___PPT10.  0 L(  L L s *\2^  CS"  `}  ^   L s *43^  DS"  ` ^  H L 0޽h ? h80___PPT10.>P3b  0 @8 (  r  S d?^ C `}  ^    ADviecentum1Family tree of the Centum group of Indo-European languages,{ ^ H  0޽h ? h80___PPT10. PtX  0 0X(  r  S C^ C `}  ^    fADeAm>m 44-OT ^ H  0޽h ? h80___PPT10. I  0 ( |(  | |  <T3 C"<   `}    | s *p3 DS"  `  H | 0޽h ? 3380___PPT10.   0 p(     6R^  CS"  `  ^     6S^  DS" i ^  H  0޽h ? f3f3___PPT10i.j@+D=' e = @B +  0  P(  P P  6a^  CS"  `}  ^   P  6tb^  DS"  ` ^  H P 0޽h ? h80___PPT10.>><  0 ( (     < k^ 3 C"<   `}  ^    s *k^ 3 DS"  ` ^  H  0޽h ? 3380___PPT10.   0 0T(  T T s *^  CS"  `}  ^   T s *<^  DS"  ` ^  H T 0޽h ? h80___PPT10.>  0 ( (     <@^ 3 C"<   `}  ^    s *^ 3 DS"  ` ^  H  0޽h ? 3380___PPT10.   0 @X(  X X s *^  CS"  `}  ^   X s *^  DS"  ` ^  H X 0޽h ? h80___PPT10.>^;  0 ( (     <4(m  C"<  'g  m    s * )m  DS"  ` m  H  0޽h ? 3380___PPT10.D   0  (    s * Z  CS"  `}  Z    s *8e  DS"  ` Z  H  0޽h ? h80___PPT10.b QL  0 ``(  ` ` s *Bm  CS"  `}  m   ` s *Cm  DS"  ` m  H ` 0޽h ? h80___PPT10.>`  0 ( (     <Lm 3 C"<   `}  m    s *Mm 3 DS"  ` m  H  0޽h ? 3380___PPT10.D   0 pd(  d d s *xVm  CS"  `}  m   d s *@BCDFGHIJKLMPQRSTVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdghiklmopqrstuvwxy{}~b$ ADseBM7 =R$k4}r`@n3(=R$ZKYյNZѮR$ZhQNe{\ bzR$[;M8/&0@ϋR$YTbLӰχOR$G "n\G TR$dw 2iC  )R$>h(N45R$ NwbjUߊWyARR$CdJa@c$%R$YjFUK(G}R$GD|N.Xlc6.U6R$$U>QDJFnR$TtT'rR$eV:ũxTXR$jm~@bbEr 0AA 3f@8ʚ;ʚ;g4BdBdc 0vppp@ <4dddd w 0T, <4!d!d x 0T0___PPT10 ppx___PPT9ZD $French sociologistnNSigmund Freud, by Max Halberstadt, 1914p?  %qnef[Am>m+o Schools of Linguistics: some random thoughts28 `.b0b - 4SNYV'Yf[ -NVYYexvz-N_ Rmn4Z` ` ` U<:NUOAm>m  `  b;N _ ۏeQN*NxvzWe ,{N[‰ ,{N[``ideas) atQ0 [‰ZPxvz +RN NNb0RN*N\W0\v̑S 7hO(g Ng0N㉏[‰̀of `O N1YeT0 [``0Tf[t_atQ kS[~b/g'`vNatQ f gaIN0b/g/fKbk cؚƋ/fBl0`dV=1. :SRAm>mNR/e 4 b0b6b($1.1 Am>mYc`no, gNhNir, NhW\O, ;N‰p, xvzel, vLeN, gvQq_ T, __ gSSƉ҉0[*g_[W-NvY g0 Schools refer to trends of thought, with their representative figures, works, unique ideas, methods and influence on later development; a diachronic perspective. &``  5:SRAm>mNR/e , " b6b( Z 1.2 R/eYcW, xvzV, _N g~xQW\O, gq_TvNir, Y(uqQe‰p0SY*NAm>m[[ gǏ!.s0 (Branches refer to areas of study, with their classics, and influential figures; often a synchronic perspective.) X`7b$`sb$`r 71. :SRAm>mNR/e & b6b(  1.3 SSƉ҉TqQeƉ҉ Nw SN;uQN*NASW[, PN*NPWh. The diachronic and synchronic perspectives will form a cross, which like a coordinate. <{`zb$`JX R9(Distinction between Schools and Branches))b(` 1. :SRAm>mNR/e `  X1.2 f[vR/e: Branches: NQR:f[, |(MO)f[, ͋Glf[, b_` f[, Slf[, INf[, (uf[(?) Distinction from within: phonetics, phonology, lexicology, morphology, syntax, semantic, pragmatics (?) @b$b$ l 9 1. :SRAm>mNR/e2 `d`NYR: _tf[, >yOf[, { f[, ^y~f[, eSf[, N{| f[ 틙e^f[I{0 Distinction from without: psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, computation linguistics, neurolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, cultural linguistics, corpus linguistics, etc. $`` W>1. :SRAm>mNR/e `'YR{|: tf[, ^(uf[ Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.EEb6611. :SRAm>mNR/e `  D1.3 f[Am>m: O~l (600BC 18N~)traditional grammar; SSf[(19N~100t^) historical linguistics; sNf[_z("}}\, 20N~R) the beginning of modern linguistics; 4``` - P71. :SRAm>mNR/e ` 'k2mR;NIN(20N~20-50)European functionalism &Ofef[>m(1940 50)The London School; |~Rl(1960 s(W) Halliday s Systemic-functional grammar*`b$b);"1. :SRAm>mNR/e ` V~g;NINf[(1930 50) American structuralism Vlbcubl(1957 s) Chomsky s Generative Grammar wf[ today Cognitive linguisticsb$l $#H2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction %%b(& 2.1 b__>m l͑Rgvb__, ~g, bRTbRvR^, [ۏLb__cQTcQvb__S, Qv_t'`. The formal school: emphasize the formal, structural aspects of L, and distribution of elements; formalize the description of L; a psychological perspective.`p <#F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(2.2 R>m l͑RgvR, Rg N TB\!k NvbRvINR, :NRQ[b__, Qv>yO'`. The functional school: emphasize the functional nature of L; analyze the semantic function of elements on all levels; function determines form; a sociolinguistic perspective. 0``f F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(( "2.3 $N>mv:S+R b__;NIN:N/f_tsa;R;NIN/f>yOsa. The formal camp say language is a psychological fact; the functional camp say language is a social fact. J  b$b(8 k =%F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(2. b__;NINnfMsa/fN{|utW O;R;NIN/feg>yO[vnfMЏ(u. The formal camp say linguistic universals are men s biological inheritance; the functional camp say language similarities come from the common use of language. "`D >$F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(3.b__;NIN ?Qz`N_/fN{|vQ(WR;R;NINُ/f?QzNEvTRvSU\. The formal camp say that children are born with the ability to acquire language; the functional camp say that language learning comes from children s needs and development. 0``6?&F2. [‰:SRAm>m A More Macro Distinction$$b(n4.b__;NINbS_brz|~xvzR;NINb>e(W>yOR-Nxvz0 The formalists regard language as an independent system; the formalists study language in the social context by referring to its social function."&`$12.[‰:SRAm>m `$  2.4 mb__l nN;TTf[ TNZTsQ|:NSTvR>mRl nNOTNyf[ 0b__>mb wbN|Rv~g ُN~gKNSN~bQV[vsQ|@bNMb glbcN NN:_vnfM'` blNNyKN:NSl wb/fvW@x@bNl/fNav VdklV~@wSP[ U\_0b0 @'2.[‰:SRAm>m ` Halliday: The basic opposition is not that between  structural and  generative grammars . The more fundamental opposition is between those that are primarily symtagmatic in orientation (by and large the formal grammars, with their roots in logic and philosophy)b S:2.[‰:SRAm>m ` and those that are primarily paradigmatic (by and large the functional ones, with their roots in rhetoric and ethnography). The former interpret a language a list of structures, among which, regular relationships may be established (b$b$A(2.[‰:SRAm>m ` (hence the introduction of transformation); they tend to emphasize universal features of language, to take grammar (which they call syntax) as the foundation of language (hence the grammar is arbitrary), and so to be organized around the sentence.b$C+2.[‰:SRAm>m ` R>mb wb/fN*NsQ|Q vQW,gsQ|PRN~gRN[sNN:_KNv N Tp bIN wZPvW@x@bNl/f6qv Vdkl/fV~@we,gb{ U\_v0$N*N5%KN gYNS _N gNvPt FON`no NN/f_ N Tv $N'Y5%_U\[݋_N_V0 0``" B)2.[‰:SRAm>m ` 2The functionalists interpret language as a network of relations, with structures coming in as the realization of these relationships; they tend to emphasize variables among languages, to take semantics as the foundation (hence the grammar is natural), and so to be organized around the text, or discourse. 33b$D*2.[‰:SRAm>m ` There are many cross-currents, with insights borrowed from one to the other; but they are ideologically fairly difficult and it is often difficulty to maintain a dialogue. 0b$`32.[‰:SRAm>m `  m `Halliday: In general the functional approach leans towards the applied rather than the pure, the rhetorical rather than the logical, the actual rather the ideal, the functional rather than the formal, the text rather than the sen tence. `T;2.[‰:SRAm>m `The emphasis is on text analysis as a mode of action, a theory of language as a means of getting things done. xvzAm>fɲٺNm;Nel N w, R_~l, o~l, [ *O ؏/fN~TI{,_N g N T0$``n    F3. Am>/vN/vN/vN  z!5. Am>mN~  O~l`  4.1 O~l: N ^J0RbN, QNbN0RvQN'k2m;l͑T͋Gl, Sl_\, NYef[l:N;N,Y:Nĉ['`l, N/fcQ'`l;q_T_'Y,e_; vQ!.s/fR NcQ]wQ(vQ/gN)Y؏(WO(u). Traditional Grammar: focus on phonetics and words; school grammar, prescriptive; influential; its terms still in use today.`   H/5. Am>mN~SSf[ 2` `` 4.2 SSf[: k,SS,1|, SSĉ_;vQTgvelf[>m:NMQ20N~W{QNNMb;SSf[:NMQ20N~sNf[_zs^S0 Historical Linguistics: language comparison, family trees of languages; laws of sound change; Neogrammarians; paved the way for modern linguistics in the 20th century.``` ` ```` ` $`$(`( ,`,0`04`48`8<`<``` `  X?5. Am>mN~SSf[$` `  Y@5. Am>mN~SSf[$` `  ZA`  " 6. Am>mN~sNf[_z0```  4.3 "}~\: sNf[;Vy;:SRNT,Sef[TqQef[, &{SvNa'`,@bcTc/fNav; /fN*N|~, N*NsQ||~((W|~-NvMOnQ[vQaIN); /f&{Sf[-NgxQWvNh.vQtq_Tm܏. Saussure: father of modern linguistics; language/speech; arbitrariness of language; synchronic/diachronic; signifier/signified; system of signs`    n["_KQwmY E. Durkheim`$ o\&[OmO_ Sigmund Freud` [D 6. Am>mN~sNf[_z" ``   | _VTf[[ Ernst Cassirerb"}~\N=O)Reuvcv^:  In the whole history of science there is perhaps no more fascinating a chapter than the rise of the new science of linguistics. In its importance it may very well be compared to the new science of Galileo, which in the 17th century, changed our whole concept of the physical world. l?Z#`b$`b$j$;b$$B  I07. Am>mN~egRf[>m` 4.4 'k2mRf[>m: ^bm,T,gT9hf[>m;!.s:MOf[,]wOo`T_ OOo`;;NMOTMO;;NTċ;q_T'Y;R;NIN;Vy0 Functional schools in Europe: the Prague School ; the Copenhagen School: contribution to phonology; given/new information; theme/rheme; topic/comment; influential around 1920-40 0``  #8. Am>mN~ V~g;NIN`  4.5 V~g;NIN: ZSSe, (\,^\_, T)Re,jKQyrI{; (\-l\+YGP, Syv[;Tf[ Nv[;NINT  ~vg ; _tf[ NvL:N;NIN; American structuralism: F. Boaz, E. Sapir, Leonard Bloomfield, Z. Hariss, C. Hockett, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, empiricism in philosophy,  blank slate , behaviorism in psychology.  `*  &V \EZSSe Boaz ` ]F(iO\ Sapir ` ^H L. Bloomfield` ^\_`_IQyr Wundt ` `JNSu Watson` aLeё~ Skinner` J18. Am>mN~V~g;NIN`  %NmN~TNYeW:ublb(0  4.5 VvTNYeW:ubl NvN:Wi}T;vQ‰, Tf[ Nv/Ut;NIN,_tf[ Nw;NIN; NuOeg,:_'YvRYr`;vh/fc:y,g(TN{|,g(; Chomsky s Generative grammar: a revolution; rationalism in philosophy; cognitive psychology; language is innate; initial state of mind; reveal nature of L to show nature of man.$ Z`   bM TNYeW Chomsky`  cNAm>mN~TNYeW:ubl.` ``$ 5eċTNl Chomky s position is not only unique within linguistics at the present time, but is probably unprecedented in the whole history of the subject& Right or wrong, Chomsky s theory of grammar is undoubtedly the most dynamic and influential, and no linguist who wishes to keep abreast of current developments in his subject can afford to ignore Chomsky s theoretical pronouncements.  John LyonsZ`dOChomsky`4 It seems plain that language acquisition is based on the child s discovery of what from a formal point of view is a deep and abstract theory  a generative grammar of his language  many of the concepts and principles of which are only remotely related to experience by long and intricate chains of the unconscious quasi-inferential steps. A consideration of the character of the grammar that is acquired, theZ`ePChomsky`:degenerate quality and narrowly limited extent of the available data, the striking uniformity of the resulting grammar, and their independence of intelligence, motivation, and emotional state, over wide range of variation, leave little hope that much of the structure of the language can be learned by an organism initially uninformed as to its general character.(-- Chomsky 1965Aspects of the theory of syntax) jj`bbbb0{  fQb(  >f6q `N_WN?QzSsNb__҉^ w/fNymeY0bavt sSk틄vNyubl0ُylvYi_TSR_{~Ǐ+o0 YBgveaƋvNctǏ z MbN~ z zvޏ0 z_`N`?Qz`N_vl'`( Nc0Rv틙e(ϑKN]TVKN\ ?Qz`N_NzfR0R:g0`~kesQ| NNNvsXV }CS]N+R gT@b_lvtS`N0WvmN~TNYeW:ublb(, cQRBlb__S;Slrz,Sl:N8h_;‰[EQR, cQEQR, ʑEQR;vQq_Tm܏,NN3vNe;TNlt[Tf[,_tf[,{:g,b__SI{, g!.s. To formalize the description of L; independence of syntax; emphasis on explanatory power; contribution to philosophy, psychology, computer science; biology; bio-linguistics 0``  gRChomsky:)YK b(@In  The Architecture of Language (2002:50) he wrote:  Lots of people reject the proposal that language is innate but nobody answers them. The reason why nobody answers is that their arguments would make no sense. There s no way to answer them. To say that  language is not innate is to say that there is no difference between my granddaughter, a rock and a rabbit. In other words, if you take a rock, a rabbit and`hSChomsky)YK `lmy granddaughter and put them in a community where people are talking English, they ll all learn English. If people believe that, then they believe that language is not innate. If they believe that there is a difference between my granddaughter, a rabbit and a rock, then they believe that language is innate. 77b$iTChomsky:Yef[ b(Chomsky (1988) & teaching should not be compared to filling a bottle with water but rather to helping a flower to grow in its own way. As any good teacher knows, the methods of instruction and range of material covered are of small important as compared with the success in arousing the natural curiosity of the students$Uwf[uv6q}YGY_ and stimulating their interest in&oZnb$`$B !jUChomskyYef[ b(exploring on their ownoRNNSbc"}vtQ. What the students learn passively will be quickly forgotten. What the students discover for themselves when their natural curiosity and creative impulses are aroused not only will be remembered but will be the basis for further exploration and inquiry and perhaps significant intellectual contributions.TZTb$ 2%  10. Am>mN~|~Rf[`  d4.6&Ofef[>m: V g`ENxvz O~ N 0Q0bl9eiI{wNV W Tf[[9N<\\mTegb:N|~Rlf[>m0lg+YeW, [Oe, mN~|~Rf[` The London School: Britain has a long tradition of language studies. The great phoneticians Henry Sweet Daniel Jones0 Malinovki, J.R. Firth, M.A.K. Halliday; meaning is use; context determines meaning; emphasis on both structure and system; linguistic potential and actual behavior; paradigmatic/ syntagmatic relations; types of functions of language 0aZ\``b\      +kV"Malinovski lg+YeW`  lX`[Oe J. R. Firth` mZM.A.K. Halliday` mN~|~Rf[` 0/fY\|~~bv'Y|~.v~g1u>yOR@bQ[.v N'YR;?QzvN'YR. (WYef[ NTeSOf[ N g!.s. Language is a system of many sub-systems; three macro function of language (ideational, interpersonal, textual function); children s seven functions; contribution to language teaching and stylistics; popular in China.`Z   n|~ jThe material process: action and event. The transitivity systemSir'`|~: material process, mental process, relational process, verbal and behavioral process, existential process. The action process: intention process and supervention process. The mental process: internalized process and externalized process. T6Zl/36? No|~ ZThe internalized process: 1. perception, 2. reaction and 3. cognition processes. (p.322) There are realization relationships between various levels. The choice of meaning is realized by the choice of form, which in turn is realized by the choice of sounds. What can be done is realized by what can be meant, which is realized by what can be said.[ZCZpR Functions of Children s Language: The instrumental function: to meet his material needs and services;]wQ The regulatory function: to control others behavior; The interactional function: to talk with others;NE The personal function: to express his feelings;*NNh .""W   5 0    qR |5. The heuristic function: to know about his own surroundings;c"} 6. The imaginative function: to create surroundings;`a 7. The informative function: to provide information for others.JTw The adult s language has to serve many functions, these are gradually reduced to a set of highly coded and abstract functions.?? %    $ ~ tR ZFunctions of adult s language: Ideational function, interpersonal function and textual function.i_R0NER0{R The Ideational function i_R  to convey new information unknown to the hearer. It is the meaning potential, used in all languages. It is to refer to categories of experience of the world. $.oN`     uR 2.The interpersonal functionNER : it embodies all the uses of language to express social and personal relations; the ways the speaker enters into a speech situation and performs a speech act. It is realized by moodl and modality``.H l Z  Q    vR The Textual Function{R : Language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living message different from a random list of sentences.  John saw a handbag in a field. John walked across a field and picked up a handbag.John took a handbag to the police station and John handed a handbag to a policeman. TuZf    . "&  11. N*Nef[>m wf[`  wf[: /f N/fN*NeAm>m? ؏/fN*NR/e? YN20N~70t^N, sQ_N_zfT'YvsQ|, /fw|~vNR;w|~/f1uaw, `a,tuS, baS,TctI{R~b. vh N/fcQL:N, /fʑ_wL:Nv_t~gT_tǏ z, c:ỳTQ(WvmB\ĉ_. Nir: TNYeW, Talmy, Jackendoff, Langacker, Lakoff, Biewish, Hudson, Fillmore,TalorI{.`    !  p]"y+Y George Lakoff q^$y+Y George Lakoff?"We are neural beings," states Berkeley cognitive scientist George Lakoff. "Our brains take their input from the rest of our bodies. What our bodies are like and how they function in the world thus structures the very concepts we can use to think. We cannot think just anything - only what our embodied brains permit." .@1?r_@L. Talmy Ph.D.Berkerley Pioneering work In cognitive linguistics,A(`,*M4 11. N*Nef[>m wf[` cI am not if this is a new school or what. People say language and its use are based on our bodily experience and the way to conceptualize it is called cognitive linguistics. It is a new approach to the study of language and mind. Topics include structure of characterization (prototype, metaphor, mental imagery), conceptual interface between syntax and..dd`N511. N*Nef[>mwf[` {semantics, the experiential and pragmatic background of language-in-use, and the relationship between language and thought.||`' 11. N*NeAm>mwf[`  wf[vtSR: IN~gl gnfM'`;l Nrz; lT͋Gll gaIN:S+R(&{Sޏ~SO). xvzW: tuS, i_U, lU, YIN'`, ba'`, lSI{. f[y'`: NTf[, _tf[, N{|f[, {:gyf[,^y~f[I{ gsQ. g N Tf[>m: #W0WNT>m,/OKQ)Rf[>m`    O611. N*NeAm>mwf[` NPrinciples: semantic structure has no universals; syntax is not independent; syntax and vocabulary form a continuum of symbols, not distinguished in meaning. Areas: characterization, metaphor, polysemy, iconicity, grammatization etc. Highly cross-disciplinary: philosophy, psychology, computer science, neurology, anthropology etc.OZO`s`"TX\[ Talmy s work(Cognitive semantics: S-NvƉ҉  There are some houses in the valley.  There is a house every now and then through the valley. la&qp  The bike is near the house .  The house is near the bike. RRf[  The ball rolled along the green.  The ball kept rolling along the green. La?L>c=Lta"TX\[ Talmy s work&NNveRRThe beacon flashed. The beacon kept flashing. The beacon flashed 5 times in a row. The beacons kept flashing 5 times at a stretch. The beacons kept flashing 5 times at a stretch for 3 hours. $|j$TX\[ Talmy s work&@Toward a Cognitive Semantics Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 2000 Volume I Concept Structuring Systems Part 1: Foundations of Conceptual Structuring in Language Ch. 1 The Relation of Grammar to Cognition Part 2: Configurational Structure Ch. 2 Fictive Motion in Language and "Ception" Ch. 3 How Language Structures Space ,AIl:e*  &# 0:; 0 0 0?}l"TX\[ Talmy s work&Part 3: Attention Ch. 4 The Windowing of Attention in Language Ch. 5 Figure and Ground in Language Ch. 6 Structures that Relate Events Part 4: Force and Causation Ch. 7 Force Dynamics in Language and Cognition Ch. 8 The Semantics of Causation References IndexZz,##.  . 0>/ 0?b0 0c1 02 03 04 0~k"TX\[ Talmy s work&'Volume II Typology and Process in Concept Structuring Part 1: Typological Patterns in the Representation of Event Structure Ch. 1 Lexicalization Patterns Ch. 2 Surveying Lexicalization Patterns Ch. 3 A Typology of Event Integration Ch. 4 Borrowing Semantic Space: Diachronic Hybridization (<R'%8& 0' 0( 0) 0&m"TX\[ Talmy s work& Part 3: Other Cognitive Systems Ch. 7 The Cognitive Culture System Ch. 8 A Cognitive Framework for Narrative Structure Part 2: Semantic Interaction Ch. 5 Semantic Conflict and Resolution Ch. 6 Communicative Goals and Means: Their Cognitive Interaction References IndexZZ "4&@5 0 B6 0Cw7 08 09 0 vd"y+Y Lakoff s workThey began to think of expressions like  It s been a long bumpy road ,  The marriage is on the rock ,  It s off the track ,  We re spinning our wheels ,  We re going in different directions ,  We are at a crossroads in the relationship . Then they generalized: In every case, the love relationship is a vehicle. In every case, the common life goals of the lovers are destinations they want to get to together. And in every case the difficulties in the relationship are thingsZ&1  we$y+Y Lakoff s work that keep them from reaching the destination: spinning wheels, dead-end street, going in different directions, and so on. The travelers mapped the lovers, vehicles the mapped relationships. This is a kind of mathematical mapping. The reasoning that you do about travel is mapped onto the reasoning you do about love.  LOVE IS A JOURNEY is exactly in the mapping .lZlkxf$y+Y Lakoff s work What is a concept in the brain? How do we get concept and how do we get complicated concepts like grasping, and how do we get abstract concept like grasping ideas or causation or something like that? So the idea is this: meaning is mental stimulation in the brain using your physical brain. Mental stimulation is imagining something. So if I give you a sentence like  John picked up the bottle , in order to understand that sentence, you have to at (Zyg$y+Y Lakoff s work( least be able to imagine someone picking up the bottle. If you cannot even imagine it, then you cannot understand the sentence. So understanding requires imagining something as if you were doing it, seeing it. that requires the same part of the brain as doing it or seeing it. How does that relate to the world? A concept is the minimal unit of linguistic meaning, the meaning of words are made up of concepts. There is a minimal unit of reasoning, which uses concepts.: "   zh&y+Y Lakoff s work The same part of the brain that moves your body also reasons about aspect. We call our theory simulation semantics because it says meaning is mental simulation using those parts of the brain that you use for the imagination of both seeing and acting. So concepts have an internal structure called neural parameters. And neural parameter is something as discovered in the neural system. For example, something like reaching for an object makes use of the parameter of direction. D^w 11. N*NeAm>mwf[ ` qLakoff, George. 1987. Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things. What Categories Reveal about the Mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Lakoff G & JohnsonM(1999). Philosophy in the Flesh: the Embodied Mind and its Challenge to Western Thought. NY: Basic Books. Langacker R (2002). Concept, Image, and Symbol: the Cognitive Basis of Grammar. Berlin/NY: Mouton de Gruyter.LrZICO': $i{i12. SfN& d`Rmn, 0ef[Am>m 0 Yx>y, 19950 Liu Runqing &Feng Zongxin, Schools and Theories of Linguistics, Nanjing Normal University Press, 200 4 bb$%`#`(`b0` '"Q8 12. SfN `4Liu0Running& Cui Gang, Readings in Linguistics: Ninety Years since Saussure . (Rmn ]R 0sNf[ TW 0. Yx>y 2009 Rmn ee 0ef[Ye z 0 Yx>y 2005 in English) Pb$8b$Jb$`L  r Q 1                          ! 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" # $ % & ' ( ) * + , - . / 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : ; < = > ? @ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z [ \ ] ^ _ ` a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z { | }        !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvDxyz{|}~TK _0 SFL UserSFL UserM[     m Ļʾ MC SYSTEMW \Arial Wingdings _GB2312RippleAѧ̸ Schools of Linguistics: some random thoughtsΪҪ⣿ 1.